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1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 | #!/usr/bin/env python3
"""
Fine-Grained Sub-Discipline Semantic Matcher & Open-Question Synthesizer for UnsolvedEarth v1.2.0.
Eliminates cross-subtopic collisions (e.g., core dynamo terms on subduction papers, magma terms on clay adsorption papers,
or seafloor sediment terms on upper-ocean heatwave papers) by matching each candidate against 75+ specialized sub-discipline
profiles across the 15 primary categories, and grounding >90% of statements directly in the paper's extracted open-problem clause.
"""
import re
from governing_equations import GOVERNING_RELATIONS_BY_SUB_ID, normalize_mid_sentence_case
# 75 specialized sub-discipline profiles (5 per category) using 100% valid taxonomy slugs
SUBTOPIC_PROFILES = {
1: [
{
"sub_id": "core_dynamo_inner_core",
"keywords": r"\b(inner\s+core|outer\s+core|core-mantle|cmb|dynamo|geomagnetic|paleomagnetic|fe-ni|fe-si|fe7c3|superionic|anisotrop\w+\s+in\s+earth|geodynamo|magnetic\s+reversal|archeomagnetic|secular\s+variation)\b",
"components": ["inner_core", "outer_core"],
"media": ["core_alloy", "melt"],
"processes": ["geomagnetic_dynamo", "mantle_convection"],
"spatial_scale": "mantle_or_core_domain",
"temporal_scale": "millennial_to_orbital",
"depth_range": "2,891–6,371 km",
"observables": [
"PKIKP body-wave travel-time residuals and normal-mode splitting functions",
"satellite and paleomagnetic secular-variation field reconstructions",
],
"inferred": [
"inner-core crystalline anisotropy, light-element partitioning, and outer-core convective buoyancy flux",
"core-mantle boundary heat-flux heterogeneity and geomagnetic reversal thresholds",
],
"forcings": "inner-core crystallization buoyancy flux and secular core cooling",
"boundaries": "core-mantle boundary topography and heterogeneous lower-mantle thermal conductivity",
},
{
"sub_id": "lower_mantle_plumes_transition_zone",
"keywords": r"\b(lower\s+mantle|transition\s+zone|llsvp|ulvz|mantle\s+plume|bridgmanite|post-perovskite|ringwoodite|wadsleyite|410\s*km|660\s*km|slab\s+stagnation|deep\s+mantle|hotspot|large\s+igneous\s+province)\b",
"components": ["lower_mantle", "transition_zone"],
"media": ["mantle_silicate", "rock"],
"processes": ["mantle_convection", "metamorphic_transformation"],
"spatial_scale": "mantle_or_core_domain",
"temporal_scale": "multi_million_year_tectonic",
"depth_range": "410–2,891 km",
"observables": [
"full-waveform seismic tomography and P-to-S receiver-function discontinuity depths",
"diamond-inclusion mineral physics and hotspot helium/tungsten isotope ratios",
],
"inferred": [
"thermochemical density contrasts across Large Low-Shear-Velocity Provinces (LLSVPs)",
"mantle transition-zone water storage capacity and viscosity stratification across 660 km",
],
"forcings": "thermochemical mantle convection and deep slab negative buoyancy",
"boundaries": " endothermic 660-km phase-transition clapeyron slopes and basal thermal boundary layers",
},
{
"sub_id": "subduction_slab_mantle_wedge",
"keywords": r"\b(subduction|subducting|slab|mantle\s+wedge|arc\s+magma|back-arc|forearc|trench|wadati|slab\s+breakoff|slab\s+rollback|slab\s+window|slab\s+dehydration|serpentinite\s+channel|recycled\s+carbonate|carbonated\s+mantle|asthenospher\w+|upper\s+mantle|mantle\s+melting|metasomat\w+|peridotite|basalt\w*)\b",
"components": ["subduction_zone", "upper_mantle"],
"media": ["crystalline_rock", "magma_or_melt"],
"processes": ["plate_subduction", "magma_generation_and_ascent"],
"spatial_scale": "tectonic_plate_or_orogen",
"temporal_scale": "multi_million_year_tectonic",
"depth_range": "15–300 km",
"observables": [
"high-resolution slab-interface seismic attenuation and magnetotelluric conductivity profiles",
"arc-lava volatile ratios, oxygen fugacity (fO2) oxybarometry, and slab-fluid trace-element signatures",
],
"inferred": [
"slab-to-wedge volatile and oxidant mass transfer rates and mantle-wedge corner-flow viscosity",
"mechanical coupling and metamorphic dehydration kinetics along the plate interface",
],
"forcings": "slab pull, trench rollback, and metamorphic dehydration reactions",
"boundaries": "slab thermal age, incoming plate hydration state, and overriding-plate thickness",
},
{
"sub_id": "continental_rifting_breakup_margins",
"keywords": r"\b(rift|rifting|breakup|break-up|passive\s+margin|rifted\s+margin|necking|extensional|back-arc\s+basin|mid-ocean\s+ridge|seafloor\s+spreading|oceanic\s+crust|transform\s+fault|detachment\s+fault)\b",
"components": ["rift", "lithosphere"],
"media": ["crystalline_rock", "magma_or_melt"],
"processes": ["crustal_deformation", "magma_generation_and_ascent"],
"spatial_scale": "sedimentary_basin_or_continental_margin",
"temporal_scale": "multi_million_year_tectonic",
"depth_range": "0–120 km",
"observables": [
"deep-penetration marine multichannel seismic reflection and wide-angle refraction profiles",
"syn-rift basin tectono-stratigraphy, GNSS extension rates, and dike-intrusion seismicity",
],
"inferred": [
"rheological transition from brittle crustal necking to magma-assisted lithospheric breakup",
"inherited structural weakness reactivation and asthenospheric decompression melt partitioning",
],
"forcings": "far-field plate tensional stresses and asthenospheric upwelling buoyancy",
"boundaries": "pre-existing crustal shear zones, lithospheric thermal structure, and magma supply rate",
},
{
"sub_id": "craton_orogen_continental_crust",
"keywords": r"\b(craton|cratonic|orogen|orogenic|continental\s+crust|archean|proterozoic|ttg|delamination|drip|suture|collisional|tibetan|himalaya|lithospheric\s+mantle|crustal\s+growth|crustal\s+thickness)\b",
"components": ["continental_crust", "orogen"],
"media": ["crystalline_rock", "mantle_silicate"],
"processes": ["crustal_deformation", "metamorphic_transformation"],
"spatial_scale": "tectonic_plate_or_orogen",
"temporal_scale": "multi_million_year_tectonic",
"depth_range": "0–200 km",
"observables": [
"crustal receiver-function Moho depth maps, Bouguer gravity anomalies, and xenolith thermobarometry",
"zircon U-Pb/Hf-O isotopic arrays and whole-rock major/trace-element crustal compilations",
],
"inferred": [
"secular continental crust growth versus recycling rates and lower-crustal foundry mechanics",
"cratonic lithospheric root stability, metasomatic weakening, and orogenic lower-crustal flow",
],
"forcings": "continental collision, lithospheric thickening, and convective removal of eclogitized lower crust",
"boundaries": "Moho temperature, crustal radiogenic heat production, and cratonic keel composition",
},
],
2: [
{
"sub_id": "earthquake_rupture_fault_mechanics",
"keywords": r"\b(earthquake|rupture|fault|seismicity|aftershock|foreshock|coseismic|interseismic|postseismic|asperity|friction|seismogenic|ground\s+motion|focal\s+mechanism|strike-slip|normal\s+fault|thrust\s+fault)\b",
"components": ["fault_zone", "continental_crust"],
"media": ["crystalline_rock", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["fault_rupture_and_slip", "crustal_deformation"],
"spatial_scale": "fault_or_volcanic_edifice",
"temporal_scale": "instantaneous_to_event",
"depth_range": "0–35 km",
"observables": [
"near-field broadband seismograms, high-rate GNSS displacements, and InSAR coseismic interferograms",
"fault-zone drilling core microstructure and laboratory rotary-shear friction velocity dependence",
],
"inferred": [
"rate-and-state frictional healing, dynamic pore-fluid pressurization, and rupture arrest thresholds",
"partitioning between seismic radiation, fracture energy, and off-fault plastic damage",
],
"forcings": "tectonic shear-stress loading and coseismic dynamic pore-pressure transients",
"boundaries": "fault-zone geometric complexity, gouge mineralogy, and depth-dependent effective normal stress",
},
{
"sub_id": "slow_slip_tremor_megathrust",
"keywords": r"\b(slow\s+slip|tremor|sse|ets|megathrust|low-frequency\s+earthquake|vlfe|subduction\s+interface|aseismic\s+slip|creep|plate\s+interface)\b",
"components": ["subduction_zone", "fault_zone"],
"media": ["crystalline_rock", "hydrothermal_fluid"],
"processes": ["fault_rupture_and_slip", "plate_subduction"],
"spatial_scale": "fault_or_volcanic_edifice",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "10–60 km",
"observables": [
"seafloor borehole pressure gauges, continuous GNSS networks, and tectonic tremor catalogs",
"seismic Vp/Vs ratios and magnetotelluric images of overpressured plate-interface fluids",
],
"inferred": [
"effective normal stress and fault-valve permeability evolution across the brittle-ductile transition",
"stress transfer from episodic tremor and slow slip (ETS) to locked megathrust asperities",
],
"forcings": "subduction convergence loading and metamorphic fluid release along the downdip interface",
"boundaries": "interface temperature profile, subducted sediment thickness, and fluid-drainage architecture",
},
{
"sub_id": "volcanic_plumbing_eruption_degassing",
"keywords": r"\b(volcan\w+|eruption|magma|caldera|lava|pyroclastic|degassing|plumbing|phreatic|fumarole|conduit|ash|dike|sill|mush|vesiculation)\b",
"components": ["magma_reservoir", "continental_crust"],
"media": ["magma_or_melt", "hydrothermal_fluid"],
"processes": ["volcanic_degassing_and_eruption", "magma_generation_and_ascent"],
"spatial_scale": "fault_or_volcanic_edifice",
"temporal_scale": "instantaneous_to_event",
"depth_range": "0–25 km",
"observables": [
"edifice tilt/InSAR deformation, volcano-tectonic seismicity, and UV/FTIR SO2/CO2 gas plume ratios",
"melt-inclusion volatile contents and crystal-cargo diffusion chronometry",
],
"inferred": [
"crystal-mush remobilization timescales, conduit magma ascent rates, and effusive-to-explosive transitions",
"volatile exsolution kinetics and overpressure thresholds triggering dike propagation",
],
"forcings": "mafic magma recharge, volatile exsolution buoyancy, and conduit shear heating",
"boundaries": "magma viscosity, conduit geometry, and edifice stress field",
},
{
"sub_id": "tsunami_seafloor_displacement",
"keywords": r"\b(tsunami\w*|runup|inundation|meteotsunami|seafloor\s+deformation|ocean\s+bottom\s+pressure|dart\s+buoy|submarine\s+failure)\b",
"components": ["seafloor", "coast"],
"media": ["seawater", "marine_sediment"],
"processes": ["fault_rupture_and_slip", "coastal_and_estuarine_morphodynamics"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "instantaneous_to_event",
"depth_range": "0–10 km",
"observables": [
"DART deep-ocean bottom pressure records, cabled seafloor observatories, and tide-gauge waveforms",
"post-tsunami coastal runup surveys, boulder transport limits, and paleotsunami sand sheets",
],
"inferred": [
"shallow trench-wedge splay-fault slip partitioning and tsunami-earthquake dispersive wave amplification",
"nearshore bathymetric focusing and coastal bottom-friction dissipation during overland flow",
],
"forcings": "coseismic seafloor vertical displacement and submarine mass-failure acceleration",
"boundaries": "continental shelf bathymetry, coastal topography, and trench-wedge compliance",
},
{
"sub_id": "landslide_debris_flow_mass_wasting",
"keywords": r"\b(landslide\w*|debris\s+flow|rockfall|rock\s+avalanche|slope\s+failure|slope\s+stability|mass\s+wasting|liquefaction|quick\s+clay|lahar|earthflow)\b",
"components": ["regolith", "fault_zone"],
"media": ["soil", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["landslide_and_mass_wasting", "hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff"],
"spatial_scale": "hillslope_to_catchment",
"temporal_scale": "instantaneous_to_event",
"depth_range": "0–200 m",
"observables": [
"multi-temporal LiDAR/InSAR slope displacement fields, borehole inclinometers, and pore-pressure piezometers",
"seismic acoustic emissions and flume/ring-shear basal friction measurements",
],
"inferred": [
"transition from slow hillslope creep to catastrophic runaway acceleration via shear-zone liquefaction",
"basal pore-pressure diffusion and grain-inertia entrainment rates during debris-flow runout",
],
"forcings": "extreme rainfall infiltration, coseismic strong ground shaking, and rapid snowmelt",
"boundaries": "regolith thickness, hillslope gradient, clay mineralogy, and bedrock fracture permeability",
},
],
3: [
{
"sub_id": "low_temp_aqueous_clay_sorption_interface",
"keywords": r"\b(adsorption|sorption|desorption|clay|montmorillonite|kaolinite|illite|smectite|ferrihydrite|goethite|hematite|calcite|colloid|aqueous|speciation|surface\s+complexation|interfacial|dissolution|cation|anion|radium|uranium|arsenic)\b",
"components": ["critical_zone", "regolith"],
"media": ["pore_water", "sediment"],
"processes": ["chemical_weathering", "redox_transformation"],
"spatial_scale": "molecular_to_pore",
"temporal_scale": "instantaneous_to_event",
"depth_range": "0–500 m",
"observables": [
"synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (EXAFS/XANES) and in-situ vibrational spectroscopy",
"sorption isotherms, diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT), and aqueous speciation titrations",
],
"inferred": [
"inner- versus outer-sphere surface complexation thermodynamics and interfacial hydration energetics",
"mineral-water dissolution/precipitation rate constants and competitive ion-exchange selectivity",
],
"forcings": "pH/Eh gradients, ionic strength fluctuations, and organic ligand complexation",
"boundaries": "mineral surface site density, interlayer basal spacing, and pore-throat geometry",
},
{
"sub_id": "igneous_petrology_magmatic_differentiation",
"keywords": r"\b(magma\w*|melt|granite|granitic|basalt\w*|rhyolit\w+|adakit\w+|pegmatit\w+|silicic|mafic|ultramafic|peridotit\w+|kimberlit\w+|carbonatit\w+|petrogenesis|crystallization|partial\s+melting|pluton\w*|batholith)\b",
"components": ["magma_reservoir", "continental_crust"],
"media": ["magma_or_melt", "crystalline_rock"],
"processes": ["magma_generation_and_ascent", "metamorphic_transformation"],
"spatial_scale": "core_to_outcrop",
"temporal_scale": "multi_million_year_tectonic",
"depth_range": "5–150 km",
"observables": [
"electron microprobe and LA-ICP-MS mineral/melt-inclusion major and trace element zoning",
"piston-cylinder and multi-anvil phase-equilibrium experiments and radiogenic Sr-Nd-Hf isotopes",
],
"inferred": [
"degree of partial melting, crustal assimilation vs. fractional crystallization (AFC) mass balance",
"melt extraction percolation thresholds and volatile/chalcophile partitioning coefficients",
],
"forcings": "decompression melting, mantle heat flux, and flux melting by slab-derived volatiles",
"boundaries": "source rock fertility, oxygen fugacity (fO2), and pressure-temperature ascent path",
},
{
"sub_id": "hydrothermal_ore_deposits_metallogeny",
"keywords": r"\b(ore|mineralization|deposit\w*|porphyry|epithermal|skarn|vms|orogenic\s+gold|metallogen\w*|hydrothermal|sulfide|chalcopyrite|pyrite|sphalerite|molybdenite|cassiterite|rare\s+earth|ree|lithium|cobalt|cu-au)\b",
"components": ["hydrothermal_system", "continental_crust"],
"media": ["hydrothermal_fluid", "crystalline_rock"],
"processes": ["redox_transformation", "magma_generation_and_ascent"],
"spatial_scale": "core_to_outcrop",
"temporal_scale": "multi_million_year_tectonic",
"depth_range": "1–15 km",
"observables": [
"fluid-inclusion microthermometry, Raman spectroscopy, and LA-ICP-MS single-inclusion metal assays",
"in-situ sulfur, oxygen, and copper/iron/zinc stable isotope zoning across ore paragenetic stages",
],
"inferred": [
"metal-ligand complex stability, phase-separation brine/vapor partitioning, and precipitation triggers",
"magmatic-hydrothermal fluid flux budgets and structural permeability focusing mechanisms",
],
"forcings": "magmatic fluid exsolution, decompression boiling, and fluid-rock redox reactions",
"boundaries": "host-rock buffering capacity, fault-fracture network connectivity, and salinity/fO2 gradients",
},
{
"sub_id": "isotope_geochemistry_geochronology",
"keywords": r"\b(isotop\w+|delta|δ|fractionation|zircon|monazite|apatite|titanite|u-pb|lu-hf|sm-nd|rb-sr|re-os|ar-ar|geochron\w*|thermochron\w*|fission-track|u-th-he)\b",
"components": ["continental_crust", "lithosphere"],
"media": ["crystalline_rock", "rock"],
"processes": ["metamorphic_transformation", "chemical_weathering"],
"spatial_scale": "core_to_outcrop",
"temporal_scale": "geological_deep_time",
"depth_range": "0–100 km",
"observables": [
"MC-ICP-MS, SIMS, and TIMS high-precision radiogenic and non-traditional stable isotope ratios",
"ab-initio density-functional-theory (DFT) vibrational force constants and diffusion profiles",
],
"inferred": [
"equilibrium versus kinetic mass-dependent and mass-independent isotope fractionation factors",
"closure temperatures, radiation-damage annealing kinetics, and crustal residence timescales",
],
"forcings": "thermal diffusion, metamorphic recrystallization, and redox phase partitioning",
"boundaries": "crystal lattice defect density, cooling rate, and open- vs. closed-system fluid exchange",
},
{
"sub_id": "high_pressure_mineral_physics_metamorphism",
"keywords": r"\b(metamorphic|metamorphism|eclogite|granulite|amphibolite|blueschist|serpentin\w+|diamond|elastic|high-pressure|equation\s+of\s+state|olivine|garnet|pyroxene|quartz|coesite|rheolog\w+)\b",
"components": ["lithosphere", "upper_mantle"],
"media": ["crystalline_rock", "mantle_silicate"],
"processes": ["metamorphic_transformation", "crustal_deformation"],
"spatial_scale": "core_to_outcrop",
"temporal_scale": "multi_million_year_tectonic",
"depth_range": "10–410 km",
"observables": [
"diamond-anvil-cell synchrotron X-ray diffraction, Brillouin scattering, and EBSD fabric analyses",
"pseudosection phase-equilibria thermobarometry and trace-element-in-mineral thermometers",
],
"inferred": [
"pressure-temperature-time-deformation (P-T-t-d) paths and dislocation vs. diffusion creep laws",
"mineral elastic moduli, seismic wave-velocity anisotropy, and dehydration embrittlement kinetics",
],
"forcings": "tectonic burial/exhumation, deviatoric stress, and metamorphic fluid infiltration",
"boundaries": "bulk rock composition, grain-size evolution, and water activity (aH2O)",
},
],
4: [
{
"sub_id": "quaternary_orbital_ice_core_paleoclimate",
"keywords": r"\b(pleistocene|holocene|quaternary|glacial|interglacial|deglaciation|younger\s+dryas|heinrich|dansgaard|milankovitch|orbital|speleothem|loess|ice\s+core|last\s+glacial\s+maximum|lgm|mid-pleistocene)\b",
"components": ["sedimentary_stratigraphic_archive", "ice_sheet"],
"media": ["ice_or_snow", "sedimentary_rock"],
"processes": ["radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "hemispheric",
"temporal_scale": "millennial_to_orbital",
"depth_range": "Surface to 4 km ice/sediment depth",
"observables": [
"ice-core trapped-gas CO2/CH4 records, speleothem U-Th/delta-18O series, and loess-paleosol sequences",
"marine benthic foraminiferal delta-18O/delta-13C stacks and alkenone/TEX86 sea-surface temperatures",
],
"inferred": [
"orbital pacing of glacial-interglacial transitions (including the Mid-Pleistocene Transition)",
"interhemispheric phasing of millennial abrupt climate oscillations and deep-ocean carbon storage",
],
"forcings": "Milankovitch orbital insolation variations, ice-sheet albedo feedbacks, and AMOC reorganizations",
"boundaries": "continental ice-sheet geometry, Southern Ocean sea-ice extent, and dust radiative forcing",
},
{
"sub_id": "greenhouse_hyperthermals_cenozoic_mesozoic",
"keywords": r"\b(paleogene|eocene|petm|paleocene|oligocene|miocene|pliocene|cretaceous|jurassic|triassic|hyperthermal|greenhouse|oae|oceanic\s+anoxic|cenozoic|mesozoic)\b",
"components": ["sedimentary_stratigraphic_archive", "marine_sediment"],
"media": ["marine_sediment", "sedimentary_rock"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "planetary_global",
"temporal_scale": "multi_million_year_tectonic",
"depth_range": "0–3 km sediment cores",
"observables": [
"IODP deep-sea core carbon-isotope excursions (CIEs), clumped-isotope (Delta47) paleothermometry, and boron-isotope pCO2",
"cyclo- and magnetostratigraphic age models and osmium/strontium weathering-proxy records",
],
"inferred": [
"Earth system sensitivity (ESS) under high-CO2 greenhouse states and carbon-release rates during hyperthermals",
"silicate-weathering and organic-carbon burial negative feedback timescales following carbon-cycle perturbations",
],
"forcings": "Large Igneous Province (LIP) volcanic degassing, methane hydrate dissociation, and gateway tectonics",
"boundaries": "paleogeographic continental configuration, ocean gateway bathymetry, and carbonate compensation depth",
},
{
"sub_id": "precambrian_oxygenation_early_earth",
"keywords": r"\b(archean|proterozoic|hadean|neoproterozoic|paleoproterozoic|ediacaran|cambrian|great\s+oxidation|goe|noe|snowball\s+earth|banded\s+iron|bif|euxinia|early\s+earth|precambrian)\b",
"components": ["sedimentary_stratigraphic_archive", "atmosphere"],
"media": ["sedimentary_rock", "marine_sediment"],
"processes": ["redox_transformation", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "planetary_global",
"temporal_scale": "billion_year_planetary",
"depth_range": "0–10 km cratonic basins",
"observables": [
"mass-independent sulfur isotopes (Delta33S), iron speciation, and Ce/Mo/U/Cr redox-sensitive trace-metal shales",
"carbonate-associated sulfate and detrital redox-sensitive mineral assemblages",
],
"inferred": [
"stepwise oxygenation of Earth's atmosphere and deep oceans across the GOE and NOE",
"links between supercontinent cycles, nutrient phosphorus availability, and early biospheric evolution",
],
"forcings": "oxygenic photosynthesis evolution, mantle reducer outgassing decline, and Snowball Earth glaciations",
"boundaries": "continental emergence area, marine sulfate inventory, and hydrothermal iron fluxes",
},
{
"sub_id": "mass_extinction_paleoecology_turnover",
"keywords": r"\b(extinction|permian-triassic|end-permian|end-cretaceous|k-pg|ordovician|devonian|triassic-jurassic|biotic\s+crisis|fossil|taphonom\w+|biostratigraph\w+|ammonit\w+|conodont\w+|brachiopod\w+|trilobit\w+)\b",
"components": ["sedimentary_stratigraphic_archive", "biosphere"],
"media": ["sedimentary_rock", "marine_sediment"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "redox_transformation"],
"spatial_scale": "planetary_global",
"temporal_scale": "geological_deep_time",
"depth_range": "0–5 km stratigraphic sections",
"observables": [
"high-precision CA-ID-TIMS U-Pb ash-bed chronology,mercury anomalies (Hg/TOC), and sulfur/nitrogen isotopes",
"paleobiological taxonomic/functional diversity curves and carbonate platform demise horizons",
],
"inferred": [
"kill mechanisms (anoxia, hypercapnia, ocean acidification, thermal shock) and biotic recovery timescales",
"preservation and sampling biases versus true ecological collapse across mass-extinction boundaries",
],
"forcings": "trap volcanism (Siberian, Deccan, CAMP), bolide impact, and marine photic-zone euxinia",
"boundaries": "shelf habitat area, trophic network redundancy, and post-crisis nutrient recycling",
},
{
"sub_id": "basin_stratigraphy_provenance_diagenesis",
"keywords": r"\b(stratigraph\w+|sedimentary\s+basin|provenance|detrital\s+zircon|diagenes\w+|dolomit\w+|sequence\s+stratigraph\w+|turbidit\w+|facies|foreland\s+basin|unconformity|chemostratigraph\w+)\b",
"components": ["sedimentary_basin", "continental_sediment"],
"media": ["sedimentary_rock", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["sediment_transport_and_deposition", "chemical_weathering"],
"spatial_scale": "sedimentary_basin_or_continental_margin",
"temporal_scale": "multi_million_year_tectonic",
"depth_range": "0–12 km",
"observables": [
"seismic-stratigraphic clinoform geometries, borehole wireline logs, and detrital zircon U-Pb age spectra",
"petrographic cement paragenesis, clumped-isotope burial temperatures, and mudrock biomarker maturity",
],
"inferred": [
"relative contributions of eustasy, tectonic subsidence, and sediment supply to stratigraphic architecture",
"post-depositional diagenetic overprinting of primary paleoenvironmental proxy signals",
],
"forcings": "tectonic flexural subsidence, eustatic sea-level oscillations, and hinterland denudation pulses",
"boundaries": "basin accommodation space, pore-fluid chemistry, and burial thermal gradient",
},
],
5: [
{
"sub_id": "fluvial_channel_sediment_transport",
"keywords": r"\b(river|fluvial|channel|bedload|suspended\s+sediment|meander\w*|braided|alluvial|avulsion|floodplain|knickpoint|incision|bank\s+erosion|stream\s+power|turbidity\s+current)\b",
"components": ["river", "floodplain"],
"media": ["fluvial_or_coastal_sediment", "freshwater_surface"],
"processes": ["sediment_transport_and_deposition", "physical_erosion_and_denudation"],
"spatial_scale": "reach",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "0–50 m",
"observables": [
"acoustic Doppler bedload/suspended-flux profiles, repeat airborne LiDAR/bathymetric DEMs, and grain-size distributions",
"in-situ cosmogenic nuclide (10Be/26Al) catchment erosion rates and fallout radionuclide (137Cs/210Pb) budgets",
],
"inferred": [
"nonlinear bedload transport thresholds, channel-width adjustment laws, and avulsion return periods",
"sediment residence times and storage-release hysteresis across hillslope-to-floodplain cascades",
],
"forcings": "flood hydrograph flashiness, tectonic base-level fall, and upstream sediment supply pulses",
"boundaries": "bed grain-size armoring, riparian bank cohesion, and valley confinement",
},
{
"sub_id": "tectonic_geomorphology_orogenic_erosion",
"keywords": r"\b(denudation|exhumation|orogenic\s+relief|topographic|drainage\s+divide|river\s+capture|landscape\s+evolution|uplift|cosmogenic|10be|thermochron\w*|gorge|bedrock\s+river)\b",
"components": ["orogen", "river"],
"media": ["crystalline_rock", "fluvial_or_coastal_sediment"],
"processes": ["physical_erosion_and_denudation", "crustal_deformation"],
"spatial_scale": "tectonic_plate_or_orogen",
"temporal_scale": "millennial_to_orbital",
"depth_range": "0–5 km relief",
"observables": [
"catchment-wide cosmogenic 10Be denudation rates, low-temperature apatite (U-Th)/He ages, and channel steepness (ksn)",
"high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) and chi-analysis of drainage divide migration",
],
"inferred": [
"coupling and lag timescales between rock uplift, precipitation gradients, and bedrock incision",
"transient landscape response to drainage reorganization and glacial-fluvial erosion switching",
],
"forcings": "tectonic rock uplift, orographic precipitation focus, and Quaternary glaciation cycles",
"boundaries": "bedrock lithological erodibility, fracture spacing, and threshold hillslope angles",
},
{
"sub_id": "aeolian_dunes_dust_loess_geomorphology",
"keywords": r"\b(aeolian|eolian|dune\w*|sand\s+sea|erg|barchan|saltation|dust\s+emission|wind\s+erosion|ventifact|yardang|desert\s+pavement)\b",
"components": ["dryland", "continental_sediment"],
"media": ["fluvial_or_coastal_sediment", "tropospheric_air"],
"processes": ["sediment_transport_and_deposition", "physical_erosion_and_denudation"],
"spatial_scale": "landscape",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–100 m",
"observables": [
"high-frequency anemometer/piezoelectric saltation flux arrays and multi-temporal UAV/satellite dune tracking",
"optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dune stratigraphy and dust-source grain-size/mineralogy signatures",
],
"inferred": [
"aerodynamic entrainment thresholds under turbulent gustiness and soil-moisture/crusting cohesion",
"self-organization of complex dune-field defect patterns under multidirectional wind regimes",
],
"forcings": "boundary-layer wind shear stress, synoptic dust storms, and aridity oscillations",
"boundaries": "sediment availability, biological soil crust cover, and upwind topographic roughness",
},
{
"sub_id": "karst_cave_glacial_periglacial_geomorphology",
"keywords": r"\b(karst|sinkhole|dissolution|epikarst|drumlin|moraine|esker|subglacial|periglacial|solifluction|rock\s+glacier|patterned\s+ground|frost\s+cracking)\b",
"components": ["regolith", "glacier"],
"media": ["sedimentary_rock", "ice_or_snow"],
"processes": ["physical_erosion_and_denudation", "chemical_weathering"],
"spatial_scale": "hillslope_to_catchment",
"temporal_scale": "centennial_to_millennial",
"depth_range": "0–500 m",
"observables": [
"terrestrial laser scanning (TLS), ground-penetrating radar (GPR), and dye-tracing/hydrochemical breakthrough curves",
"cosmogenic exposure dating of moraine boulders and frost-cracking acoustic emission logs",
],
"inferred": [
"subglacial till deformation vs. bedrock quarrying laws and karst conduit-network enlargement rates",
"periglacial frost-cracking intensity and sediment production sensitivity to diurnal/seasonal freeze-thaw",
],
"forcings": "basal glacier sliding velocity, freeze-thaw thermal cycling, and carbonic-acid infiltration",
"boundaries": "carbonate bedding/fracture porosity, basal water pressure, and regolith thermal diffusivity",
},
{
"sub_id": "hillslope_soil_erosion_gully_badlands",
"keywords": r"\b(hillslope|soil\s+erosion|rill|gully|sheet\s+erosion|raindrop|splash|bioturbation|soil\s+creep|colluvium|sediment\s+yield|connectivity|check\s+dam|terrace)\b",
"components": ["regolith", "soil"],
"media": ["soil", "fluvial_or_coastal_sediment"],
"processes": ["physical_erosion_and_denudation", "sediment_transport_and_deposition"],
"spatial_scale": "hillslope_to_catchment",
"temporal_scale": "instantaneous_to_event",
"depth_range": "0–20 m",
"observables": [
"plot-to-catchment runoff/sediment-flux weirs, repeat structure-from-motion (SfM) photogrammetry, and sediment fingerprinting",
"137Cs, excess 210Pb, and fallout Pu soil redistribution profiles",
],
"inferred": [
"nonlinearhillslope diffusive-to-advective transition thresholds and structural vs. functional sediment connectivity",
"biogenic soil-production and bioturbation transport coefficients across climate and vegetation gradients",
],
"forcings": "convective storm kinetic energy, overland flow shear stress, and land-use disturbance",
"boundaries": "soil aggregate stability, root density, surface microtopography, and slope curvature",
},
],
6: [
{
"sub_id": "cloud_microphysics_aerosol_ccn_in",
"keywords": r"\b(cloud\w*|microphysic\w*|aerosol-cloud|droplet|ice\s+nucleat\w*|inp|ccn|supercooled|autoconversion|entrainment|mixed-phase|cirrus|stratocumulus|cumulus)\b",
"components": ["troposphere", "boundary_layer"],
"media": ["aerosol_or_cloud_hydrometeor", "cloud_water"],
"processes": ["cloud_microphysics_and_aerosol_interaction", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "regional_synoptic",
"temporal_scale": "diurnal_to_synoptic",
"depth_range": "0–18 km altitude",
"observables": [
"aircraft in-situ cloud-droplet/ice-crystal optical array probes and dual-polarization Doppler cloud radar/lidar",
"continuous-flow diffusion chamber ice-nucleating particle (INP) spectra and CCN supersaturation counters",
],
"inferred": [
"secondary ice production (SIP) multiplication rates and supercooled liquid-to-ice phase partitioning",
"aerosol-cloud effective radiative forcing (ERFaci) and cloud-top entrainment drying feedbacks",
],
"forcings": "updraft supersaturation fluctuations, radiative cloud-top cooling, and aerosol loading perturbations",
"boundaries": "lower-tropospheric stability, boundary-layer inversion strength, and aerosol chemical hygroscopicity",
},
{
"sub_id": "tropospheric_chemistry_soa_ozone_radicals",
"keywords": r"\b(secondary\s+organic\s+aerosol|soa|ozone|o3|nox|voc\w*|isoprene|terpene|hydroxyl|oh\s+radical|nitrate\s+radical|photochem\w*|new\s+particle\s+formation|nucleation|brown\s+carbon|black\s+carbon|pm2\.5)\b",
"components": ["troposphere", "boundary_layer"],
"media": ["tropospheric_air", "aerosol_or_cloud_hydrometeor"],
"processes": ["cloud_microphysics_and_aerosol_interaction", "contaminant_transport_and_fate"],
"spatial_scale": "regional_synoptic",
"temporal_scale": "diurnal_to_synoptic",
"depth_range": "0–12 km altitude",
"observables": [
"high-resolution TOF-CIMS and aerosol mass spectrometry (AMS) molecular speciation and radical laser-induced fluorescence",
"smog-chamber oxidation yields and satellite (TROPOMI/TEMPO) tropospheric NO2/HCHO/O3 column retrievals",
],
"inferred": [
"autoxidation and multiphase aqueous/heterogeneous reaction pathways governing SOA volatility and mass yields",
"nonlinear ozone production sensitivity (NOx- vs. VOC-limited regimes) and nocturnal radical recycling",
],
"forcings": "actinic solar UV flux, biogenic VOC emissions, and anthropogenic/wildfire precursor plumes",
"boundaries": "boundary-layer mixing height, relative humidity, and pre-existing aerosol surface area",
},
{
"sub_id": "convective_storms_tropical_cyclones_monsoon",
"keywords": r"\b(tropical\s+cyclone|hurricane|typhoon|convecti\w+|thunderstorm|mesoscale\s+convective|mcs|squall|tornado|lightning|hail|rapid\s+intensification|eyewall|monsoon\s+rainfall|orographic\s+precipitation)\b",
"components": ["troposphere", "boundary_layer"],
"media": ["tropospheric_air", "precipitation"],
"processes": ["atmospheric_convection_and_circulation", "cloud_microphysics_and_aerosol_interaction"],
"spatial_scale": "regional_synoptic",
"temporal_scale": "diurnal_to_synoptic",
"depth_range": "0–20 km altitude",
"observables": [
"phased-array and dual-polarization weather radar, dropsonde wind/thermodynamic profiles, and geostationary IR/lightning imagers",
"cloud-resolving (km-scale) ensemble hindcasts and airborne Doppler radar vorticity retrievals",
],
"inferred": [
"convective cold-pool organization, upscale vorticity aggregation, and tropical-cyclone rapid intensification triggers",
"stochastic boundary-layer trigger mechanisms for deep moist convection initiation over complex terrain",
],
"forcings": "convective available potential energy (CAPE), sea-surface enthalpy fluxes, and vertical wind shear",
"boundaries": "mid-tropospheric dry-air entrainment, orographic barrier geometry, and land-surface soil-moisture heterogeneity",
},
{
"sub_id": "stratosphere_mesosphere_gravity_waves_ozone",
"keywords": r"\b(stratospher\w+|mesospher\w+|thermospher\w+|ionospher\w+|gravity\s+wave\w*|planetary\s+wave|sudden\s+stratospheric\s+warming|ssw|quasi-biennial|qbo|brewer-dobson|polar\s+vortex|tropopause|utlls)\b",
"components": ["stratosphere", "mesosphere"],
"media": ["stratospheric_or_upper_air", "air"],
"processes": ["atmospheric_convection_and_circulation", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "hemispheric",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "10–100 km altitude",
"observables": [
"GPS radio occultation temperature profiles, limb-sounding satellite trace-gas retrievals (MLS/SABER), and Rayleigh lidar",
"superpressure balloon momentum-flux measurements and high-altitude research aircraft UTLS transects",
],
"inferred": [
"sub-grid non-orographic gravity-wave momentum deposition and wave-mean-flow interaction during SSW events",
"two-way stratosphere-troposphere mass exchange across the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere (UTLS)",
],
"forcings": "upward-propagating Rossby and gravity wave packets, solar UV variability, and stratospheric aerosol injection",
"boundaries": "tropopause sharp thermal inversion, QBO phase, and polar night jet shear",
},
{
"sub_id": "boundary_layer_turbulence_air_surface_exchange",
"keywords": r"\b(boundary\s+layer|pbl|abl|turbulen\w*|eddy\s+covariance|monin-obukhov|surface\s+layer|nocturnal\s+jet|low-level\s+jet|entrainment\s+zone|inversion|roughness\s+sublayer)\b",
"components": ["boundary_layer", "troposphere"],
"media": ["tropospheric_air", "air"],
"processes": ["atmospheric_convection_and_circulation", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "local_landscape_or_urban",
"temporal_scale": "diurnal_to_synoptic",
"depth_range": "0–3 km altitude",
"observables": [
"sonic anemometer eddy-covariance towers, Doppler wind lidar profiles, and tethered balloon turbulence probes",
"large-eddy simulation (LES) benchmark fields and scintillometer area-averaged sensible heat fluxes",
],
"inferred": [
"breakdown of Monin-Obukhov similarity theory over heterogeneous terrain and stable nocturnal boundary layers",
"intermittent turbulence bursting and nonlocal counter-gradient transport across the entrainment zone",
],
"forcings": "diurnal surface radiative heating/cooling and synoptic geostrophic pressure gradients",
"boundaries": "canopy/topographic aerodynamic roughness, soil thermal inertia, and capping inversion strength",
},
],
7: [
{
"sub_id": "climate_sensitivity_cloud_radiative_feedbacks",
"keywords": r"\b(climate\s+sensitivity|ecs|tcr|cloud\s+feedback|radiative\s+feedback|radiative\s+forcing|pattern\s+effect|lapse-rate\s+feedback|water-vapor\s+feedback|albedo\s+feedback|cmip6|emergent\s+constraint)\b",
"components": ["atmosphere", "ocean"],
"media": ["tropospheric_air", "aerosol_or_cloud_hydrometeor"],
"processes": ["radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance", "cloud_microphysics_and_aerosol_interaction"],
"spatial_scale": "planetary_global",
"temporal_scale": "multidecadal",
"depth_range": "Surface to top of atmosphere (TOA)",
"observables": [
"CERES/ERBE top-of-atmosphere radiative energy budget time series and Argo global ocean heat uptake",
"A-Train active cloud radar/lidar radiative kernel decompositions and CMIP6 multi-model ensembles",
],
"inferred": [
"equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) bounds and sea-surface warming pattern effects on low-cloud feedbacks",
"state dependence of tropical anvil-cloud area and extratropical mixed-phase optical-depth feedbacks",
],
"forcings": "anthropogenic greenhouse-gas radiative forcing and spatially heterogeneous aerosol forcing",
"boundaries": "tropical Pacific east-west SST gradient, Southern Ocean heat uptake efficiency, and cloud microphysical state",
},
{
"sub_id": "enso_pdo_amo_modes_teleconnections",
"keywords": r"\b(enso|el\s+nino|la\s+nina|southern\s+oscillation|indian\s+ocean\s+dipole|iod|madden-julian|mjo|nao|north\s+atlantic\s+oscillation|pdo|pacific\s+decadal|amo|amv|teleconnection|walker\s+circulation|hadley\s+cell)\b",
"components": ["ocean", "troposphere"],
"media": ["seawater", "tropospheric_air"],
"processes": ["atmospheric_convection_and_circulation", "ocean_circulation_and_mixing"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Ocean thermocline to upper troposphere",
"observables": [
"TAO/TRITON/RAMA equatorial mooring arrays, satellite altimetry/SST, and global atmospheric reanalysis products",
"coupled seasonal-to-decadal initialized hindcast ensembles and coral/tree-ring paleoclimate reconstructions",
],
"inferred": [
"ENSO flavor diversity (Eastern vs. Central Pacific), phase-locking, and pantropical basin-interaction predictability",
"relative roles of internal ocean-atmosphere coupling versus external forcing in multidecadal (PDV/AMV) variability",
],
"forcings": "westerly wind bursts, equatorial thermocline Kelvin/Rossby wave propagation, and diabatic convective heating",
"boundaries": "equatorial thermocline depth/sharpness, Indo-Pacific warm-pool geometry, and midlatitude jet waveguide state",
},
{
"sub_id": "extreme_events_heatwaves_blocking_compound",
"keywords": r"\b(heatwave\w*|cold\s+wave|extreme\s+precipitation|atmospheric\s+river|blocking|jet\s+stream|rossby\s+wave|compound\s+event|compound\s+extreme|attribution|flash\s+drought|drought\w*|wildfire\s+weather)\b",
"components": ["troposphere", "biosphere_terrestrial"],
"media": ["tropospheric_air", "soil"],
"processes": ["atmospheric_convection_and_circulation", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "continental",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "Root zone to tropopause",
"observables": [
"daily station/gridded extreme temperature and precipitation indices, upper-air geopotential blocking diagnostics",
"large initial-condition single-model ensembles (SMILEs) and storyline event-attribution simulations",
],
"inferred": [
"thermodynamic Clausius-Clapeyron scaling versus dynamic circulation/blocking changes in extreme events",
"land-atmosphere soil-moisture dessication feedbacks amplifying compound hot-dry and humid-heat extremes",
],
"forcings": "quasi-stationary Rossby wave amplification, atmospheric blocking persistence, and soil-moisture depletion",
"boundaries": "arctic-to-midlatitude thermal gradient, soil water-holding capacity, and antecedent snowpack/SST anomalies",
},
{
"sub_id": "global_carbon_climate_tipping_feedbacks",
"keywords": r"\b(tipping\s+point|tipping\s+element|bistability|hysteresis|abrupt\s+change|carbon-climate\s+feedback|transient\s+climate\s+response\s+to\s+cumulative|tcre|zero\s+emissions\s+commitment|zec|methane\s+feedback|earth\s+system\s+model)\b",
"components": ["atmosphere", "biosphere"],
"media": ["tropospheric_air", "biota"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "planetary_global",
"temporal_scale": "centennial_to_millennial",
"depth_range": "Coupled atmosphere-ocean-land biosphere",
"observables": [
"global atmospheric CO2/CH4/N2O flask networks, satellite column XCO2/XCH4 (OCO-2/GOSAT), and ocean pCO2",
"coupled C4MIP Earth System Model simulations and paleoclimate abrupt-transition records",
],
"inferred": [
"critical warming thresholds and cascading interactions among Earth-system tipping elements",
"magnitude and sign of carbon-concentration (beta) vs. carbon-climate (gamma) feedbacks under overshoot pathways",
],
"forcings": "cumulative anthropogenic carbon emissions and high-latitude/tropical warming amplification",
"boundaries": "ocean carbonate buffering capacity, terrestrial nutrient stoichiometry, and permafrost carbon stocks",
},
{
"sub_id": "monsoon_hydroclimate_itcz_shifts",
"keywords": r"\b(monsoon|itcz|intertropical\s+convergence|sahel|south\s+asian\s+monsoon|east\s+asian\s+monsoon|west\s+african\s+monsoon|aridification|hydroclimat\w+|precipitation\s+minus\s+evaporation|p-e)\b",
"components": ["troposphere", "ocean"],
"media": ["tropospheric_air", "precipitation"],
"processes": ["atmospheric_convection_and_circulation", "hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff"],
"spatial_scale": "continental",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Surface to tropopause",
"observables": [
"TRMM/GPM satellite precipitation radar, water-vapor isotopologues, and atmospheric moisture-budget reanalyses",
"monsoon onset/withdrawal indices and cross-equatorial atmospheric energy-transport diagnostics",
],
"inferred": [
"energetic controls on ITCZ latitudinal migrations and regional monsoon rainfall vs. circulation decoupling",
"aerosol direct/indirect cooling versus greenhouse warming impacts on Asian and African monsoon intensity",
],
"forcings": "interhemispheric radiative heating asymmetries, land-sea thermal contrast, and Tibetan Plateau sensible heating",
"boundaries": "orographic barrier geometry, Indian/Pacific SST gradients, and regional aerosol optical depth",
},
],
8: [
{
"sub_id": "ice_sheet_grounding_line_marine_instability",
"keywords": r"\b(ice\s+sheet|ice\s+shelf|grounding\s+line|marine\s+ice\s+sheet|misi|micl|antarctic\s+ice|greenland\s+ice|thwaites|pine\s+island|calving|buttressing|ice\s+stream|basal\s+sliding|subglacial\s+hydrology)\b",
"components": ["ice_sheet", "ice_shelf"],
"media": ["ice_or_snow", "seawater"],
"processes": ["cryospheric_melt_and_ice_flow", "ocean_circulation_and_mixing"],
"spatial_scale": "continental",
"temporal_scale": "centennial_to_millennial",
"depth_range": "0–4 km ice thickness",
"observables": [
"ICESat-2/CryoSat-2 laser/radar altimetry, Sentinel-1 InSAR ice-velocity fields, and airborne ice-penetrating radar",
"autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) sub-ice-shelf cavity hydrography and borehole basal water pressures",
],
"inferred": [
"basal friction constitutive laws (Weertman vs. Coulomb plastic) and sub-ice-shelf basal melt parameterization",
"irreversible grounding-line retreat thresholds under Marine Ice Sheet and Ice Cliff Instability (MISI/MICI)",
],
"forcings": "Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW) intrusion into ice-shelf cavities and surface meltwater hydrofracturing",
"boundaries": "retrograde subglacial bed topography, basal till rheology, and ice-shelf pinning points",
},
{
"sub_id": "mountain_glaciers_mass_balance_debris",
"keywords": r"\b(glacier\w*|mountain\s+glacier|debris-covered\s+glacier|glacier\s+surge|surging\s+glacier|equilibrium\s+line|ela|glacier\s+mass\s+balance|glacial\s+lake|glof|high\s+mountain\s+asia)\b",
"components": ["glacier", "snowpack"],
"media": ["ice_or_snow", "freshwater_surface"],
"processes": ["cryospheric_melt_and_ice_flow", "hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff"],
"spatial_scale": "hillslope_to_catchment",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "0–500 m ice thickness",
"observables": [
"geodetic DEM differencing (ASTER/Pléiades), glaciological ablation-stake networks, and UAV thermal imagery",
"proglacial discharge hydrographs and ground-penetrating radar ice-thickness profiles",
],
"inferred": [
"supraglacial debris-thickness insulation vs. ice-cliff/pond melt enhancement on debris-covered glaciers",
"enthalpy-driven thermal/hydrological switches governing periodic glacier surging instabilities",
],
"forcings": "shortwave/longwave surface energy balance, solid-to-liquid precipitation shifts, and black-carbon deposition",
"boundaries": "hypsometric elevation distribution, supraglacial debris lithology, and subglacial drainage efficiency",
},
{
"sub_id": "sea_ice_dynamics_thermodynamics_leads",
"keywords": r"\b(sea\s+ice|pack\s+ice|fast\s+ice|polynya|lead\w*|melt\s+pond|marginal\s+ice\s+zone|miz|arctic\s+sea\s+ice|antarctic\s+sea\s+ice|ice-albedo|brine\s+rejection)\b",
"components": ["sea_ice", "sea_surface"],
"media": ["ice_or_snow", "seawater"],
"processes": ["cryospheric_melt_and_ice_flow", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "hemispheric",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–10 m ice thickness",
"observables": [
"passive microwave sea-ice concentration, ICESat-2/CryoSat-2 freeboard thickness, and drifting buoy kinematics",
"MOSAiC/shipboard ice-mass-balance buoys, melt-pond spectral albedo, and under-ice turbulent heat fluxes",
],
"inferred": [
"viscous-plastic vs. elasto-brittle sea-ice rheology across multi-scale lead and ridge networks",
"ocean-wave fracture attenuation in the marginal ice zone and seasonal-to-interannual sea-ice predictability",
],
"forcings": "synoptic wind stress, oceanic mixed-layer heat flux, and surface downwelling longwave radiation",
"boundaries": "snow-on-sea-ice depth, halocline stratification, and melt-pond drainage porosity",
},
{
"sub_id": "permafrost_thermokarst_active_layer_carbon",
"keywords": r"\b(permafrost|thermokarst|active\s+layer|yedoma|talik|frozen\s+ground|ice\s+wedge|palsa|peat\s+plateau|permafrost\s+carbon|subsea\s+permafrost)\b",
"components": ["permafrost", "soil"],
"media": ["permafrost_or_frozen_ground", "soil"],
"processes": ["cryospheric_melt_and_ice_flow", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "regional",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "0–500 m depth",
"observables": [
"GTN-P borehole temperature arrays, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), and active-layer probing",
"eddy-covariance/chamber CO2 and CH4 fluxes and radiocarbon (Delta14C) age of respired/dissolved carbon",
],
"inferred": [
"abrupt thermokarst collapse rates versus gradual top-down active-layer deepening",
"partitioning of thawed permafrost carbon between aerobic CO2 respiration, methanogenesis, and lateral aquatic export",
],
"forcings": "polar temperature amplification, winter snow-insulation changes, and boreal wildfire disturbance",
"boundaries": "ground excess-ice content, yedoma silt vs. peat stratigraphy, and local drainage topography",
},
{
"sub_id": "snowpack_hydrology_sea_level_gia",
"keywords": r"\b(snowpack|snow\s+water\s+equivalent|swe|snow\s+albedo|snowmelt|rain-on-snow|sea-level\s+rise|sea\s+level|barystatic|steric|glacial\s+isostatic|gia|fingerprinting)\b",
"components": ["snowpack", "coast"],
"media": ["ice_or_snow", "seawater"],
"processes": ["cryospheric_melt_and_ice_flow", "hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff"],
"spatial_scale": "continental",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Surface snowpack to upper mantle GIA",
"observables": [
"airborne Lidar/radar snow-depth surveys, SNOTEL pillow networks, and GRACE/GRACE-FO gravimetry",
"satellite radar altimetry, tide-gauge networks, and GNSS vertical land motion (GIA) velocities",
],
"inferred": [
"closure of regional sea-level budgets (barystatic mass addition, thermosteric expansion, and GIA fingerprints)",
"canopy-snow interception sublimation and rain-on-snow runoff generation physics in mountain snowpacks",
],
"forcings": "warming freezing levels, light-absorbing impurities on snow, and ice-mass redistribution",
"boundaries": "3D upper-mantle viscosity structure (for GIA), forest canopy architecture, and coastal shelf geometry",
},
],
9: [
{
"sub_id": "amoc_overturning_deep_water_formation",
"keywords": r"\b(amoc|meridional\s+overturning|thermohaline|deep\s+water\s+formation|nadw|aabw|labrador\s+sea|nordic\s+seas|southern\s+ocean\s+overturning|abyssal\s+circulation|dense\s+shelf\s+water|convection\s+in\s+the\s+ocean)\b",
"components": ["deep_ocean", "open_ocean"],
"media": ["seawater", "ice_or_snow"],
"processes": ["ocean_circulation_and_mixing", "cryospheric_melt_and_ice_flow"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "multidecadal",
"depth_range": "0–6,000 m",
"observables": [
"RAPID (26.5°N) and OSNAP trans-basin mooring arrays, Deep-Argo floats, and GO-SHIP repeat hydrography",
"chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)/SF6 ventilation tracers and paleoceanographic Pa/Th and neodymium isotope records",
],
"inferred": [
"relative roles of subpolar eastern vs. western North Atlantic buoyancy forcing in driving AMOC variability",
"freshwater hosing stability thresholds and Southern Ocean wind/eddy compensation of overturning",
],
"forcings": "high-latitude air-sea heat/freshwater fluxes, Greenland/Antarctic meltwater input, and Southern Hemisphere westerlies",
"boundaries": "Greenland-Scotland Ridge sill bathymetry, Drake Passage geometry, and abyssal stratification",
},
{
"sub_id": "mesoscale_submesoscale_eddies_fronts",
"keywords": r"\b(mesoscale|submesoscale|eddy|eddies|frontogenesis|baroclinic\s+instability|symmetric\s+instability|aguhlas|kuroshio|gulf\s+stream|western\s+boundary\s+current|gyre|rossby\s+wave\w*|vorticity)\b",
"components": ["open_ocean", "sea_surface"],
"media": ["seawater", "dissolved_phase"],
"processes": ["ocean_circulation_and_mixing", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–2,000 m",
"observables": [
"SWOT wide-swath interferometer sea-surface height, surface drifter dispersion arrays, and glider high-resolution sections",
"shipboard ADCP velocity shear profiles and eddy-resolving (1/12° to 1/48°) ocean general circulation models",
],
"inferred": [
"forward versus inverse kinetic-energy cascades between balanced mesoscale eddies and ageostrophic submesoscale fronts",
"scale-aware eddy diffusivity/backscatter parameterizations and western-boundary-current separation mechanics",
],
"forcings": "wind-stress curl, surface buoyancy loss, and lateral density gradients across ocean fronts",
"boundaries": "continental slope topography, Rossby deformation radius, and bottom boundary drag",
},
{
"sub_id": "internal_waves_tides_diapycnal_mixing",
"keywords": r"\b(internal\s+wave\w*|internal\s+tide\w*|diapycnal\s+mixing|turbulent\s+mixing|microstructure|near-inertial|lee\s+wave\w*|double\s+diffusion|salt\s+finger\w*|barotropic\s+tide|abyssal\s+mixing)\b",
"components": ["deep_ocean", "seafloor"],
"media": ["seawater", "marine_sediment"],
"processes": ["ocean_circulation_and_mixing", "sediment_transport_and_deposition"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "diurnal_to_synoptic",
"depth_range": "100–6,000 m",
"observables": [
"Vertical Microstructure Profiler (VMP) turbulent kinetic energy dissipation (epsilon) and finescale strain profiles",
"deliberate SF6 tracer-release dispersion experiments and satellite altimetric internal-tide phase-locked signals",
],
"inferred": [
"spatial geography of internal-tide and lee-wave breaking over rough abyssal bathymetry",
"mixing efficiency (flux Richardson number Gamma) variations sustaining the global abyssal stratification",
],
"forcings": "barotropic tidal flow over seamounts/ridges and synoptic wind-forced near-inertial oscillations",
"boundaries": "seafloor abyssal-hill roughness spectrum, buoyancy frequency (N2), and Coriolis parameter",
},
{
"sub_id": "upper_ocean_mixed_layer_marine_heatwaves",
"keywords": r"\b(marine\s+heatwave\w*|mhw|mixed\s+layer|thermocline|pycnocline|barrier\s+layer|air-sea|sea\s+surface\s+temperature|sst|sea\s+surface\s+salinity|sss|upwelling|ekman|langmuir)\b",
"components": ["sea_surface", "open_ocean"],
"media": ["seawater", "tropospheric_air"],
"processes": ["ocean_circulation_and_mixing", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–500 m",
"observables": [
"Core-Argo temperature/salinity profiles, microwave/IR satellite SST & SSS (SMAP/SMOS), and surface flux moorings",
"wave-glider air-sea momentum/heat transfer measurements and upper-ocean heat-budget closures",
],
"inferred": [
"surface heat-flux forcing versus subsurface horizontal advection and entrainment in subsurface marine heatwaves",
"Langmuir turbulence, freshwater barrier-layer subduction, and thermocline re-emergence timescales",
],
"forcings": "surface net radiative/turbulent heat fluxes, Ekman pumping/upwelling winds, and surface wave breaking",
"boundaries": "mixed-layer depth, halocline barrier-layer thickness, and coastal upwelling shelf geometry",
},
{
"sub_id": "coastal_shelf_marginal_sea_circulation",
"keywords": r"\b(continental\s+shelf|shelf\s+sea|marginal\s+sea|south\s+china\s+sea|mediterranean|red\s+sea|baltic|black\s+sea|kuroshio\s+intrusion|strait|canyon|river\s+plume|cross-shelf)\b",
"components": ["continental_shelf", "open_ocean"],
"media": ["seawater", "fluvial_or_coastal_sediment"],
"processes": ["ocean_circulation_and_mixing", "coastal_and_estuarine_morphodynamics"],
"spatial_scale": "sedimentary_basin_or_continental_margin",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–1,000 m",
"observables": [
"high-frequency (HF) coastal radar surface currents, bottom-mounted ADCP moorings, and coastal glider transects",
"satellite ocean-color/SST front imagery and unstructured-grid coastal ocean model hindcasts",
],
"inferred": [
"cross-shelf break exchange of heat, salt, and nutrients via submarine canyons and boundary-current intrusions",
"buoyant river-plume bulge instability and tidal-straining stratification cycles in shelf seas",
],
"forcings": "along-shelf upwelling/downwelling winds, barotropic spring-neap tides, and buoyant river discharge",
"boundaries": "shelf-break canyon incision, strait sill constriction, and bottom boundary-layer roughness",
},
],
10: [
{
"sub_id": "biological_carbon_pump_export_phytoplankton",
"keywords": r"\b(biological\s+pump|biological\s+carbon\s+pump|particulate\s+organic\s+carbon|poc|marine\s+snow|fecal\s+pellet|phytoplankton|diatom\w*|coccolithophor\w*|cyanobacteria|diazotroph\w*|nitrogen\s+fixation|primary\s+production|export\s+production|mesopelagic|twilight\s+zone|diel\s+vertical\s+migration)\b",
"components": ["open_ocean", "marine_ecosystem"],
"media": ["seawater", "biota"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "ocean_circulation_and_mixing"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–1,000 m (epipelagic to mesopelagic)",
"observables": [
"BGC-Argo bio-optical/nitrate/oxygen floats, neutrally buoyant sediment traps, and Underwater Vision Profilers (UVP)",
"234Th/238U disequilibrium export fluxes and satellite hyperspectral ocean-color phytoplankton functional types",
],
"inferred": [
"partitioning of carbon export between gravitational sinking, eddy subduction, and active migrantzooplankton transport",
"microbial remineralization vs. mineral-ballast protection controlling twilight-zone transfer efficiency",
],
"forcings": "euphotic-zone nutrient supply, mixed-layer light availability, and ocean warming stratification",
"boundaries": "phytoplankton community size structure, mineral ballast (opal/CaCO3) ratios, and mesopelagic temperature",
},
{
"sub_id": "ocean_deoxygenation_omz_nitrogen_cycle",
"keywords": r"\b(deoxygenation|oxygen\s+minimum\s+zone|omz|hypoxi\w+|anoxi\w+|euxini\w+|denitrification|anammox|nitrification|nitrous\s+oxide|n2o|dissolved\s+oxygen|dead\s+zone)\b",
"components": ["open_ocean", "continental_shelf"],
"media": ["seawater", "dissolved_phase"],
"processes": ["redox_transformation", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "50–1,500 m",
"observables": [
"GO-SHIP and BGC-Argo dissolved oxygen optode profiles, 15N-labeled incubation rates, and dual-isotope delta-15N/delta-18O nitrate",
"in-situ nanomolar oxygen sensors (STOX) and dissolved N2/Ar and N2O saturation transects",
],
"inferred": [
"solubility vs. ventilation vs. respiration controls on tropical Oxygen Minimum Zone (OMZ) expansion",
"nanomolar oxygen thresholds triggering fixed-nitrogen loss via heterotrophic denitrification vs. anammox",
],
"forcings": "thermocline ventilation slowdown, coastal eutrophication, and organic-matter export pulses",
"boundaries": "equatorial zonal jet supply of oxygen, benthic sediment oxygen demand, and trace-metal enzyme cofactors",
},
{
"sub_id": "ocean_acidification_carbonate_alkalinity",
"keywords": r"\b(ocean\s+acidification|aragonite|calcite\s+saturation|alkalinity|dissolved\s+inorganic\s+carbon|dic|pco2|air-sea\s+co2|carbonate\s+pump|coral\s+calcification|pteropod|lysocline|ccd)\b",
"components": ["sea_surface", "marine_ecosystem"],
"media": ["seawater", "dissolved_phase"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "chemical_weathering"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "0–4,000 m",
"observables": [
"SOCAT surface-ocean fCO2 database, GLODAP interior DIC/Total Alkalinity bottle data, and autonomous pH sensors",
"boron/calcium ratios in calcifiers and benthic chamber carbonate dissolution flux measurements",
],
"inferred": [
"decadal trends and seasonal variability in the global ocean anthropogenic carbon sink and Revelle buffer factor",
"metabolic and mineralogical thresholds of shallow-water CaCO3 dissolution above the chemical saturation horizon",
],
"forcings": "rising atmospheric pCO2, upwelling of DIC-rich waters, and biological production/calcification ratios",
"boundaries": "seawater carbonate buffering capacity (TA:DIC ratio), temperature-dependent solubility, and benthic bioturbation",
},
{
"sub_id": "geotraces_trace_metals_hydrothermal_vents",
"keywords": r"\b(geotraces|dissolved\s+iron|iron\s+limitation|hnls|trace\s+metal\w*|siderophore|ligand\w*|hydrothermal\s+vent|hydrothermal\s+plume|black\s+smoker|cold\s+seep|methane\s+seep|gas\s+hydrate|chemosynthe\w*)\b",
"components": ["hydrothermal_system", "deep_ocean"],
"media": ["seawater", "hydrothermal_fluid"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "redox_transformation"],
"spatial_scale": "ocean_basin_or_gyre",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "0–5,000 m",
"observables": [
"GEOTRACES trace-metal-clean full-depth transects (dFe, dZn, dCo, dMn, dCu) and competitive ligand voltammetry",
"3He/4He plume tracers, ROV hydrothermal fluid samplers, and iron/zinc/cadmium stable isotope profiles",
],
"inferred": [
"organic ligand complexation and colloidal Nanoparticle stabilization enabling thousand-kilometer hydrothermal iron transport",
"relative contributions of aeolian dust, margin sediments, and mid-ocean ridges to micronutrient trace-metal inventories",
],
"forcings": "seafloor hydrothermal venting, mineral dust deposition, and nepheloid-layer sediment resuspension",
"boundaries": "siderophore binding-ligand concentrations, particle scavenging rates, and abyssal redox state",
},
{
"sub_id": "marine_sediment_early_diagenesis_benthic_flux",
"keywords": r"\b(early\s+diagenesis|benthic\s+flux|porewater|pore\s+water|sulfate\s+reduction|anaerobic\s+oxidation\s+of\s+methane|aom|smtz|sulfate-methane|bioturbation|bioirrigation|authigenic|mangrove\s+blue\s+carbon|seagrass|blue\s+carbon)\b",
"components": ["marine_sediment", "seafloor"],
"media": ["marine_sediment", "porewater"],
"processes": ["redox_transformation", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "sedimentary_basin_or_continental_margin",
"temporal_scale": "centennial_to_millennial",
"depth_range": "0–100 m below seafloor (mbsf)",
"observables": [
"multicorer porewater concentration/isotope profiles (SO4, CH4, DIC, NH4, Fe2+, H2S) and benthic lander microprofilers",
"reaction-transport diagenetic modeling and lipid biomarker/metagenomic profiles across the SMTZ",
],
"inferred": [
"efficiency of the benthic microbial methane filter (AOM) and authigenic carbonate/pyrite burial sinks",
"organo-mineral protection vs. priming controlling long-term organic carbon preservation in continental margin muds",
],
"forcings": "sedimentation rate, organic-matter labile flux, and bottom-water oxygen fluctuations",
"boundaries": "macrofaunal bioirrigation depth, reactive iron-oxide supply, and upward methane advective flux",
},
],
11: [
{
"sub_id": "catchment_runoff_transit_time_uph",
"keywords": r"\b(catchment|watershed|runoff|streamflow|hydrograph|baseflow|transit\s+time|residence\s+time|young\s+water|old\s+water|storages?-discharge|rainfall-runoff|ungauged|flood\s+frequency|non-stationar\w+)\b",
"components": ["river", "vadose_zone"],
"media": ["freshwater_surface", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff", "groundwater_flow_and_transport"],
"spatial_scale": "hillslope_to_catchment",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–100 m",
"observables": [
"high-frequency stream and precipitation stable water isotopes (delta-18O, delta-2H), electrical conductivity, and discharge",
"nested hillslope tensiometer/piezometer networks and StorAge Selection (SAS) transit-time distributions",
],
"inferred": [
"paradoxical rapid mobilization of 'old' pre-event stored water during storm hydrograph peaks",
"emergent catchment-scale storage-discharge constitutive relations from heterogeneous hillslope preferential flow",
],
"forcings": "convective vs. stratiform storm hyetographs, antecedent soil moisture, and seasonal potential evapotranspiration",
"boundaries": "bedrock topography, macropore/fracture network connectivity, and catchment geomorphometric scaling",
},
{
"sub_id": "groundwater_aquifer_karst_fractured_flow",
"keywords": r"\b(groundwater|aquifer|karst\s+aquifer|fractured\s+rock|piezomet\w+|hydraulic\s+conductivity|water\s+table|recharge|depletion|grace\s+groundwater|artesian|well\w*|transmissivity|storativity|subsidence\s+from\s+pumping)\b",
"components": ["aquifer", "groundwater"],
"media": ["groundwater", "sedimentary_rock"],
"processes": ["groundwater_flow_and_transport", "hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff"],
"spatial_scale": "river_basin_or_aquifer",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "5–1,000 m",
"observables": [
"multi-level monitoring well piezometric heads, GRACE/GRACE-FO terrestrial water storage anomalies, and InSAR aquifer deformation",
"environmental age tracers (3H/3He, 14C, 85Kr, 36Cl, noble gases) and cross-borehole hydraulic tomography",
],
"inferred": [
"upscaling of hydraulic conductivity and anomalous non-Fickian solute dispersion from pore to regional aquifer scales",
"diffuse vs. focused ephemeral-channel groundwater recharge rates and fossil-aquifer renewal timescales",
],
"forcings": "episodic wet-year recharge pulses, anthropogenic groundwater abstraction, and multi-year drought",
"boundaries": "aquitard confining continuity, karst conduit/matrix dual porosity, and fault-zone hydraulic barriers",
},
{
"sub_id": "vadose_zone_evapotranspiration_ecohydrology",
"keywords": r"\b(vadose|unsaturated\s+zone|soil\s+moisture|evapotranspiration|transpiration|sap\s+flow|stomatal|root\s+water\s+uptake|ecohydrolog\w+|water\s+use\s+efficiency|budyko|infiltration|preferential\s+flow|macropore)\b",
"components": ["vadose_zone", "critical_zone"],
"media": ["pore_water", "soil"],
"processes": ["hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff", "ecosystem_disturbance_and_biophysical_feedback"],
"spatial_scale": "hillslope_to_catchment",
"temporal_scale": "diurnal_to_synoptic",
"depth_range": "0–30 m",
"observables": [
"cosmic-ray neutron rover soil moisture, eddy-covariance latent heat fluxes, and xylem/soil water stable isotopes",
"sap-flow sensors, electrical resistivity imaging of root zones, and SMAP/Sentinel-1 microwave soil moisture",
],
"inferred": [
"partitioning of terrestrial evapotranspiration between plant transpiration (T) and soil/canopy evaporation (E)",
"ecohydrological separation ('two water worlds') between tightly bound matrix water used by roots and mobile recharge water",
],
"forcings": "vapor pressure deficit (VPD), solar radiation, and intermittent rainfall infiltration pulses",
"boundaries": "soil water retention curve hysteresis, deep-rooting architecture, and bedrock fracture water storage",
},
{
"sub_id": "hyporheic_river_groundwater_lake_wetland",
"keywords": r"\b(hyporheic|losing\s+stream|gaining\s+stream|surface\s+water-groundwater|sw-gw|lake\s+hydrology|wetland\s+hydrology|riparian|intermittent\s+river|ephemeral\s+stream|swot|river\s+discharge\s+from\s+space)\b",
"components": ["river", "wetland"],
"media": ["freshwater_surface", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["groundwater_flow_and_transport", "hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff"],
"spatial_scale": "reach",
"temporal_scale": "synoptic_to_seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–20 m",
"observables": [
"fiber-optic distributed temperature sensing (FO-DTS), 222Rn/He exchange tracers, and streambed vertical head gradients",
"SWOT wide-swath satellite water-surface elevation/slope and wetland inundation hydroperiod maps",
],
"inferred": [
"multi-scale hyporheic exchange residence-time distributions driven by bedforms, bars, and meandering",
"bidirectional hydrologic connectivity between non-perennial rivers, floodplain wetlands, and alluvial aquifers",
],
"forcings": "stage fluctuations, bedform-induced hydrostatic/hydrodynamic pressure gradients, and seasonal water-table shifts",
"boundaries": "streambed clogging (colmation) layer permeability, alluvial sediment heterogeneity, and channel sinuosity",
},
{
"sub_id": "hydroclimatic_extremes_floods_drought_propagation",
"keywords": r"\b(hydrological\s+drought|meteorological\s+drought|drought\s+propagation|flash\s+flood|urban\s+flood|snowmelt\s+flood|probabilistic\s+flood|water\s+scarcity|reservoir\s+regulation|human-water|socio-hydrolog\w+)\b",
"components": ["hydrosphere_freshwater", "river"],
"media": ["freshwater_surface", "groundwater"],
"processes": ["hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff", "groundwater_flow_and_transport"],
"spatial_scale": "river_basin_or_aquifer",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Surface to regional aquifer",
"observables": [
"multi-decade stream-gauge networks, standardized precipitation/runoff/groundwater drought indices, and satellite altimetry",
"coupled land-surface/hydrodynamic routing models and remotely sensed irrigation/reservoir storage records",
],
"inferred": [
"attenuation, lag time, and nonlinear memory governing meteorological-to-soil-to-groundwater drought propagation",
"antagonistic vs. compounding feedbacks between human water-management adaptations and extreme flood/drought risk",
],
"forcings": "persistent precipitation deficits, extreme atmospheric-river or monsoon rainfall, and human abstraction/impoundment",
"boundaries": "basin hydrogeological buffer capacity, soil/aquifer storage memory, and reservoir operating topology",
},
],
12: [
{
"sub_id": "soil_organic_carbon_mineral_stabilization_priming",
"keywords": r"\b(soil\s+organic\s+carbon|soc|soil\s+organic\s+matter|som|maoc|mineral-associated\s+organic|particulate\s+organic\s+matter|pom|priming\s+effect|necromass|microbial\s+carbon\s+use\s+efficiency|cue|soil\s+respiration|heterotrophic\s+respiration|deep\s+soil\s+carbon)\b",
"components": ["soil", "critical_zone"],
"media": ["soil", "biota"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "chemical_weathering"],
"spatial_scale": "molecular_to_pore",
"temporal_scale": "decadal",
"depth_range": "0–2 m soil profile",
"observables": [
"density/size fractionation (MAOM vs. POM), 13C/14C isotopic pulse-labeling, and solid-state 13C NMR / NanoSIMS",
"long-term soil warming manipulation plots and automated chamber heterotrophic respiration fluxes",
],
"inferred": [
"relative dominance of microbial necromass entombment, organo-mineral sorption, and microaggregate occlusion in SOC persistence",
"thermal adaptation of microbial carbon-use efficiency (CUE) and root-exudate priming of ancient subsoil carbon",
],
"forcings": "soil warming, labile root-exudate inputs, and drying-rewetting Birch-effect cycles",
"boundaries": "reactive short-range-order Fe/Al oxyhydroxide content, clay mineralogy, and soil pore-network connectivity",
},
{
"sub_id": "critical_zone_weathering_regolith_architecture",
"keywords": r"\b(critical\s+zone|saprolite|bedrock\s+weathering|weathering\s+front|chemical\s+weathering\s+rate|silicate\s+weathering|regolith\s+thickness|porosity\s+generation|fracture\s+weathering|solute\s+flux|concentration-discharge|c-q)\b",
"components": ["critical_zone", "regolith"],
"media": ["crystalline_rock", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["chemical_weathering", "groundwater_flow_and_transport"],
"spatial_scale": "hillslope_to_catchment",
"temporal_scale": "millennial_to_orbital",
"depth_range": "0–100 m (canopy to unweathered bedrock)",
"observables": [
"deep Critical Zone borehole cores, seismic refraction/resistivity tomography, and mass-transfer tau (τ) profiles",
"high-frequency stream concentration-discharge (C-Q) chemostatic slopes and Li/Mg/Si/U-series weathering isotopes",
],
"inferred": [
"topographic stress, frost cracking, and deep oxidative/acid reactions controlling the depth of the bedrock weathering front",
"mechanisms explaining chemostatic solute behavior across orders-of-magnitude discharge variations",
],
"forcings": "meteoric water infiltration, biogenic soil CO2/organic-acid production, and tectonic exhumation",
"boundaries": "regional tectonic stress field, bedrock mineral assemblage (pyrite/biotite/plagioclase), and transit time",
},
{
"sub_id": "rhizosphere_mycorrhiza_nutrient_stoichiometry",
"keywords": r"\b(rhizosphere|root\s+exudat\w*|mycorrhiz\w*|arbuscular|ectomycorrhiz\w*|phosphorus\s+limitation|nitrogen\s+mineralization|nitrification\s+in\s+soil|denitrification\s+in\s+soil|soil\s+n2o|stoichiometr\w*|extracellular\s+enzyme)\b",
"components": ["soil", "biosphere_terrestrial"],
"media": ["soil", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "redox_transformation"],
"spatial_scale": "plot_scale",
"temporal_scale": "seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–1 m rooting zone",
"observables": [
"zuckering/microdialysis rhizosphere exudate probes, 15N/33P isotopic pool dilution, and zymography enzyme imaging",
"metatranscriptomic functional gene abundance and quantum-cascade-laser N2O isotopomer fluxes",
],
"inferred": [
"carbon cost and mineral-dissolution efficiency of ectomycorrhizal vs. arbuscular mycorrhizal nutrient mining",
"hotspots and hot moments of anaerobic denitrification and N2O production inside oxic soil aggregates",
],
"forcings": "elevated atmospheric CO2 fertilization, chronic nitrogen deposition, and rhizosphere diurnal water pulses",
"boundaries": "soil C:N:P stoichiometry, aggregate oxygen micro-gradients, and soil pH buffering",
},
{
"sub_id": "peatland_wetland_redox_methane_biogeochemistry",
"keywords": r"\b(peatland\w*|bog|fen|mire|sphagnum|wetland\s+soil|paddy\s+soil|methanogen\w*|methanotroph\w*|anaerobic\s+oxidation|iron\s+reduction|redox\s+oscillation|water-table\s+fluctuation|phenolic\s+enzyme\s+latch)\b",
"components": ["peatland", "wetland"],
"media": ["soil", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["redox_transformation", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "landscape",
"temporal_scale": "seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–10 m peat column",
"observables": [
"automated chamber/eddy-covariance CH4 and CO2 fluxes, porewater dissolved CH4/δ13C-CH4, and voltammetric redox profiles",
"Mössbauer spectroscopy of iron-organic complexes and microbial 16S/mcrA/pmoA amplicon sequencing",
],
"inferred": [
"stability of the 'enzymatic latch' and 'iron gate' under drought-induced water-table drawdown and rewetting",
"partitioning between ebullition, aerenchyma plant-mediated transport, and aerobic methanotrophic oxidation",
],
"forcings": "water-table drawdown, warming, and sulfate/nitrate electron-acceptor deposition",
"boundaries": "peat botanical composition (Sphagnum vs. vascular sedges), hydraulic conductivity (acrotelm vs. catotelm)",
},
{
"sub_id": "dryland_biocrust_inorganic_carbon_caliche",
"keywords": r"\b(soil\s+inorganic\s+carbon|sic|pedogenic\s+carbonate|caliche|calcrete|biocrust|biological\s+soil\s+crust|arid\s+soil|salinization|sodic\s+soil|photodegradation)\b",
"components": ["dryland", "soil"],
"media": ["soil", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "chemical_weathering"],
"spatial_scale": "regional",
"temporal_scale": "decadal",
"depth_range": "0–3 m",
"observables": [
"clumped (Delta47) and stable (delta-13C, delta-18O) isotopes of pedogenic carbonates and soil CO2 efflux chambers",
"hyperspectral biocrust mapping and abiotic UV photodegradation litterbag experiments",
],
"inferred": [
"abiotic vs. biotic controls on dryland CO2 uptake/efflux and soil inorganic carbon (SIC) dissolution losses under acidification",
"coupling between UV photodegradation, non-rainfall water inputs (dew/fog), and biocrust nitrogen fixation",
],
"forcings": "pulsed rain events (Noy-Meir pulses), solar UV irradiance, and nitrogen/acid deposition",
"boundaries": "soil Ca2+/Mg2+ availability, pH alkalinity, and biocrust cyanobacterial/lichen succession stage",
},
],
13: [
{
"sub_id": "forest_mortality_drought_carbon_sink",
"keywords": r"\b(forest\s+mortality|tree\s+mortality|hydraulic\s+failure|carbon\s+starvation|xylem\s+embolism|cavitation|amazon\s+dieback|tropical\s+forest\s+carbon|boreal\s+forest|gross\s+primary\s+productivity|gpp|net\s+ecosystem\s+exchange|nee|co2\s+fertilization)\b",
"components": ["forest", "biosphere_terrestrial"],
"media": ["biota", "tropospheric_air"],
"processes": ["ecosystem_disturbance_and_biophysical_feedback", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "continental",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Rooting zone to forest canopy top",
"observables": [
"FLUXNET eddy-covariance NEE/GPP time series, RAINFOR/ForestGEO permanent census plots, and satellite SIF/VOD",
"xylem vulnerability curves (P50/P88), non-structural carbohydrate (NSC) assays, and GEDI spaceborne LiDAR biomass",
],
"inferred": [
"physiological thresholds separating xylem hydraulic failure from carbon starvation during multi-year mega-droughts",
"saturation of the terrestrial CO2 fertilization sink due to phosphorus/nitrogen limitation and rising VPD",
],
"forcings": "atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (VPD) extremes, heatwaves, and elevated atmospheric CO2",
"boundaries": "plant hydraulic trait diversity (isohydric vs. anisohydric), rooting depth to groundwater, and soil fertility",
},
{
"sub_id": "wildfire_regimes_pyrogenic_carbon_recovery",
"keywords": r"\b(wildfire\w*|fire\s+regime|burned\s+area|megafire|pyrogenic\s+carbon|black\s+carbon|charcoal|post-fire|fire\s+severity|savanna\s+fire|boreal\s+fire|peat\s+fire|flammability|fuel\s+moisture)\b",
"components": ["forest", "grassland"],
"media": ["biota", "tropospheric_air"],
"processes": ["ecosystem_disturbance_and_biophysical_feedback", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "regional",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Organic soil horizon to smoke plume injection height",
"observables": [
"MODIS/VIIRS active-fire radiative power, Landsat/Sentinel-2 burn-severity (dNBR) maps, and tree-ring fire scars",
"benzene polycarboxylic acid (BPCA) pyrogenic carbon markers and post-fire chronosequence regeneration surveys",
],
"inferred": [
"climate-driven vs. fuel-limitation switches in global burned area and boreal-to-deciduous post-fire state shifts",
"production, erosion, and millennial residence time of pyrogenic carbon (PyC) across terrestrial-to-marine continuum",
],
"forcings": "fire-weather indices (VPD, wind), dry lightning ignition, and human fire suppression/fragmentation",
"boundaries": "live/dead fuel moisture connectivity, bark thickness/serotiny traits, and organic-layer thickness",
},
{
"sub_id": "land_use_change_albedo_biophysical_feedbacks",
"keywords": r"\b(deforestation|afforestation|reforestation|land-use\s+change|land\s+cover\s+change|lulcc|biophysical\s+feedback|surface\s+albedo|roughness\s+length|evaporative\s+cooling|woody\s+encroachment|greening|browning|shifting\s+cultivation)\b",
"components": ["biosphere_terrestrial", "boundary_layer"],
"media": ["biota", "tropospheric_air"],
"processes": ["ecosystem_disturbance_and_biophysical_feedback", "radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance"],
"spatial_scale": "continental",
"temporal_scale": "decadal",
"depth_range": "Soil profile to planetary boundary layer",
"observables": [
"paired forest vs. open-land flux towers, MODIS/Landsat radiometric skin temperature (LST) and albedo, and LUMIP ensembles",
"high-resolution canopy height/LAI maps and atmospheric moisture-recycling trajectory models",
],
"inferred": [
"net local and nonlocal climate warming/cooling trade-offs between biogeochemical carbon sequestration and biophysical albedo/evapotranspiration changes",
"upwind deforestation thresholds for downwind precipitation collapse in continental moisture-recycling sheds",
],
"forcings": "agricultural expansion, large-scale tree-planting campaigns, and high-latitude shrubification",
"boundaries": "background snow cover duration, boundary-layer cloud coupling, and soil moisture availability",
},
{
"sub_id": "phenology_treeline_permafrost_ecosystem_shifts",
"keywords": r"\b(phenolog\w+|green-up|senescence|growing\s+season|treeline|alpine\s+tundra|arctic\s+greening|shrubification|species\s+range\s+shift|insect\s+outbreak|bark\s+beetle|windthrow|peatland\s+vegetation)\b",
"components": ["biosphere_terrestrial", "forest"],
"media": ["biota", "soil"],
"processes": ["ecosystem_disturbance_and_biophysical_feedback", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "regional",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Rooting zone to canopy",
"observables": [
"PhenoCam near-surface digital imagery, satellite NDVI/EVI/SIF phenology retrievals, and dendroecological ring widths",
"open-top chamber (ITEX) tundra warming experiments and insect-defoliation aerial surveys",
],
"inferred": [
"photoperiod, winter chilling, and spring frost-damage constraints on advancing spring leaf-out and autumn senescence",
"coupled biotic disturbance (bark beetle/pathogen) and microclimatic bottlenecks governing alpine/polar treeline migration",
],
"forcings": "winter/spring asymmetrical warming, late-spring frost events, and snowmelt timing shifts",
"boundaries": "photoperiod latitude limits, mycorrhizal symbiont dispersal, and alpine soil development",
},
{
"sub_id": "agricultural_agroecosystem_ghg_nitrogen",
"keywords": r"\b(agricultural|cropland|agroecosystem|paddy|fertilizer|manure|nitrous\s+oxide\s+emission|ammonia\s+volatilization|nitrate\s+leaching|cover\s+crop|no-till|biochar|grazing|pasture|rangeland)\b",
"components": ["agricultural_land", "soil"],
"media": ["soil", "tropospheric_air"],
"processes": ["carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling", "contaminant_transport_and_fate"],
"spatial_scale": "landscape",
"temporal_scale": "seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–2 m plow and root zone",
"observables": [
"automated static/dynamic chamber N2O/CH4/NH3 flux networks, lysimeter nitrate leaching, and 15N fertilizer recovery",
"regional tall-tower inverse atmospheric trace-gas budgets and multi-decade long-term agricultural trials",
],
"inferred": [
"nonlinear emission factors (EFs) for soil N2O hot moments following freeze-thaw, tillage, and fertigation pulses",
"trade-offs where soil carbon sequestration practices (no-till, residue retention, flooding) stimulate N2O or CH4 emissions",
],
"forcings": "synthetic nitrogen/manure application timing, irrigation wetting-drying cycles, and tillage disturbance",
"boundaries": "soil bulk density, water-filled pore space (WFPS), and nitrifier/denitrifier community structure",
},
],
14: [
{
"sub_id": "pfas_forever_chemicals_transport_fate",
"keywords": r"\b(pfas|per-\s*and\s+polyfluoroalkyl|pfos|pfoa|genx|fluorotelomer|afff|forever\s+chemical\w*|organofluorine|ultrashort-chain|perfluorinated)\b",
"components": ["vadose_zone", "groundwater"],
"media": ["groundwater", "pore_water"],
"processes": ["contaminant_transport_and_fate", "groundwater_flow_and_transport"],
"spatial_scale": "river_basin_or_aquifer",
"temporal_scale": "decadal",
"depth_range": "0–100 m",
"observables": [
"LC-HRMS suspect/non-target screening, extractable organic fluorine (EOF) mass balance, and total oxidizable precursor (TOP) assays",
"unsaturated-zone lysimeter profiles and air-water interface adsorption surface-tension isotherms",
],
"inferred": [
"air-water interfacial adsorption and surfactant self-assembly retarding PFAS leaching through the vadose zone",
"biotransformation pathways of polyfluorinated precursors into terminal perfluoroalkyl acids and sea-spray atmospheric cycling",
],
"forcings": "infiltration wetting-front velocity, ionic strength fluctuations, and co-contaminant NAPL/surfactant presence",
"boundaries": "vadose-zone air-water interfacial area, soil organic carbon electrostatic charge, and chain-length hydrophobicity",
},
{
"sub_id": "microplastics_nanoplastics_weathering_vectors",
"keywords": r"\b(microplastic\w*|nanoplastic\w*|plastic\s+debris|polymer\s+weathering|plastisphere|tire\s+wear|6ppd|synthetic\s+fiber\w*|microfiber\w*|plastic\s+sedimentation)\b",
"components": ["river", "marine_sediment"],
"media": ["freshwater_surface", "fluvial_or_coastal_sediment"],
"processes": ["contaminant_transport_and_fate", "sediment_transport_and_deposition"],
"spatial_scale": "river_basin_or_aquifer",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Surface waters to deep-sea benthic sediments",
"observables": [
"micro-FTIR, micro-Raman, and pyrolysis-GC-MS polymer quantification down to sub-micron nanoplastic scales",
"settling-column biofouling experiments and dated sediment-core microplastic accumulation profiles",
],
"inferred": [
"closure of the 'missing ocean plastic' mass budget via UV-photooxidative fragmentation into dissolved organic carbon and nanoplastics",
"biofilm heteroaggregation ('plastisphere') altering buoyancy, vertical settling velocities, and co-contaminant/AMR vectoring",
],
"forcings": "solar UV irradiance, hydrodynamic shear fragmentation, and microbial biofouling succession",
"boundaries": "polymer crystallinity/density, suspended mineral floc concentration, and estuarine salinity fronts",
},
{
"sub_id": "heavy_metals_mercury_arsenic_methylation_redox",
"keywords": r"\b(mercury|methylmercury|hg|arsenic|arsenite|arsenate|cadmium|lead\s+contamination|chromium|hexavalent|antimony|thallium|selenium|acid\s+mine\s+drainage|amd|mine\s+tailing\w*|heavy\s+metal\w*|metalloid\w*)\b",
"components": ["aquifer", "soil"],
"media": ["groundwater", "sediment"],
"processes": ["contaminant_transport_and_fate", "redox_transformation"],
"spatial_scale": "river_basin_or_aquifer",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "0–200 m",
"observables": [
"synchrotron XANES/EXAFS solid-phase speciation, multi-collector ICP-MS Hg mass-independent fractionation (Delta199Hg), and HPLC-ICP-MS",
"hgcAB mercury-methylation gene transcripts and redox-stat bioreactor mobilization kinetics",
],
"inferred": [
"coupled iron-sulfur-organic-matter redox cycling governing reductive dissolution of arsenic-bearing Fe(III) oxyhydroxides",
"bioavailability of thiol-complexed versus nanoparticulate HgS for microbial hgcAB methylation across redoxclines",
],
"forcings": "seasonal water-table redox oscillations, labile organic carbon supply, and sulfate/nitrate inputs",
"boundaries": "host-mineral crystallinity, dissolved organic matter aromaticity/thiol content, and pH-Eh conditions",
},
{
"sub_id": "emerging_organic_contaminants_ppcp_arg_pesticides",
"keywords": r"\b(emerging\s+contaminant\w*|pharmaceutical\w*|ppcp\w*|antibiotic\s+resistance\s+gene\w*|arg\w*|antibiotic\w*|pesticide\w*|herbicide\w*|atrazine|glyphosate|neonicotinoid|endocrine\s+disrupt\w*|pahs|pcbs|dioxin\w*|chlorinated\s+solvent|tce|dnaPL)\b",
"components": ["river", "aquifer"],
"media": ["freshwater_surface", "groundwater"],
"processes": ["contaminant_transport_and_fate", "redox_transformation"],
"spatial_scale": "river_basin_or_aquifer",
"temporal_scale": "seasonal",
"depth_range": "0–50 m",
"observables": [
"compound-specific isotope analysis (CSIA: delta-13C, delta-2H, delta-15N, delta-37Cl) and passive sampler time-weighted concentrations",
"high-throughput qPCR/metagenomic resistome profiling and photolysis/biotransformation product identification",
],
"inferred": [
"distinguishing in-situ abiotic/microbial degradation from physical dilution and sorption using multi-element CSIA",
"environmental coselection thresholds (sub-inhibitory metals/biocides) driving horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes",
],
"forcings": "wastewater effluent discharge, agricultural runoff pulses, and solar photolysis",
"boundaries": "hyporheic residence time, black-carbon/kerogen nonlinear sorption domains, and microbial community adaptation",
},
{
"sub_id": "radionuclides_nutrient_eutrophication_harmful_blooms",
"keywords": r"\b(radionuclide\w*|cesium-137|strontium-90|plutonium|technetium|spent\s+nuclear|geological\s+repository|eutrophication|harmful\s+algal\s+bloom\w*|hab\w*|cyanotoxin|microcystin|legacy\s+phosphorus|internal\s+loading|lake\s+hypoxia)\b",
"components": ["lake", "estuary"],
"media": ["freshwater_surface", "lake_sediment"],
"processes": ["contaminant_transport_and_fate", "carbon_cycle_and_biogeochemical_cycling"],
"spatial_scale": "hillslope_to_catchment",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "0–500 m",
"observables": [
"high-frequency lake buoy phycocyanin/chlorophyll/DO sensors, benthic chamber phosphorus fluxes, and 31P-NMR sediment speciation",
"gamma/alpha spectrometry and accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) of long-lived actinides and fission products",
],
"inferred": [
"decadal lag times and benthic internal phosphorus recycling sustaining harmful cyanobacterial blooms after external load reductions",
"colloid-facilitated transport and bentonite-barrier retardation of long-lived radionuclides over millennial timescales",
],
"forcings": "thermal stratification intensification, internal wave mixing, and catchment legacy nutrient mobilization",
"boundaries": "sediment Fe:P:S molar ratios, lake bathymetric residence time, and host-rock fracture aperture",
},
],
15: [
{
"sub_id": "coastal_morphodynamics_shoreline_barrier_marshes",
"keywords": r"\b(coast\w*|shoreline|beach\s+erosion|barrier\s+island|overwash|salt\s+marsh|mangrove|tidal\s+flat|wave\s+runup|storm\s+surge|longshore|dune\s+erosion|coral\s+reef\s+hydrodynamics|headland)\b",
"components": ["coast", "wetland"],
"media": ["fluvial_or_coastal_sediment", "seawater"],
"processes": ["coastal_and_estuarine_morphodynamics", "sediment_transport_and_deposition"],
"spatial_scale": "coastal_cell",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "0–30 m",
"observables": [
"airborne bathymetric LiDAR, Argus video/satellite shoreline positions, and surface elevation tables (SETs) in marshes",
"acoustic wave/current profilers and X-band radar nearshore wave-breaking dissipation fields",
],
"inferred": [
"ecogeomorphic vertical accretion limits of salt marshes and mangroves relative to accelerating sea-level rise",
"cross-shore vs. alongshore sediment bypassing and post-storm beach/barrier recovery hysteresis",
],
"forcings": "relative sea-level rise, tropical/extratropical storm-surge wave power, and spring-neap tidal currents",
"boundaries": "suspended sediment supply, halophyte root-mat organic production, and shoreface geologic framework",
},
{
"sub_id": "river_deltas_avulsion_subsidence_salinity",
"keywords": r"\b(delta\w*|estuar\w*|distributary|salt\s+intrusion|salinity\s+intrusion|saltwater\s+intrusion|submarine\s+groundwater\s+discharge|sgd|turbidity\s+maximum|etm|deltaic\s+subsidence|avulsion)\b",
"components": ["delta", "estuary"],
"media": ["fluvial_or_coastal_sediment", "seawater"],
"processes": ["coastal_and_estuarine_morphodynamics", "sediment_transport_and_deposition"],
"spatial_scale": "sedimentary_basin_or_continental_margin",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "0–100 m",
"observables": [
"InSAR + rod-extensometer vertical compaction rates, ADCP/CTD estuarine salt-flux transects, and 222Rn/226Ra SGD tracers",
"multi-decadal bathymetric surveys and upstream dam-trapping sediment-load time series",
],
"inferred": [
"partitioning of deltaic relative sea-level rise between shallow Holocene mud compaction, deep tectonic subsidence, and groundwater/hydrocarbon extraction",
"three-dimensional estuarine exchange flow, estuarine turbidity maximum (ETM) trapping, and saltwater intrusion length under channel deepening",
],
"forcings": "upstream reservoir sediment starvation, channel dredging, groundwater pumping, and sea-level rise",
"boundaries": "distributary bifurcation geometry, Holocene peat/mud thickness, and coastal aquifer hydraulic gradient",
},
{
"sub_id": "urban_heat_island_canyon_hydrology_emissions",
"keywords": r"\b(urban|city|cities|street\s+canyon|urban\s+heat\s+island|uhi|impervious|stormwater|green\s+infrastructure|urban\s+canopy|anthropogenic\s+heat|urban\s+boundary\s+layer|urban\s+flood\w*|urban\s+plume)\b",
"components": ["urban_environment", "boundary_layer"],
"media": ["urban_built_substrate", "tropospheric_air"],
"processes": ["radiative_transfer_and_energy_balance", "hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff"],
"spatial_scale": "local_landscape_or_urban",
"temporal_scale": "diurnal_to_synoptic",
"depth_range": "Subsurface sewer/groundwater to urban boundary layer",
"observables": [
"urban eddy-covariance flux towers, dense crowdsourced microclimate networks, and thermal-infrared satellite/airborne LST",
"high-resolution urban storm-drainage gauge networks and mobile urban CH4/CO2/NOx plume mapping",
],
"inferred": [
"synergistic nonlinear amplification between background synoptic heatwaves and urban heat islands (UHI)",
"convective rainfall enhancement downwind of urban roughness/heat domes and subsurface 'urban karst' runoff routing",
],
"forcings": "anthropogenic waste heat release, 3D street-canyon radiative trapping, and impervious surface sealing",
"boundaries": "urban morphological aspect ratio (H/W), albedo/thermal admittance of built materials, and urban tree-canopy fraction",
},
{
"sub_id": "dryland_desertification_oasis_dust_coupled",
"keywords": r"\b(dryland\w*|desertification|semi-arid|hyper-arid|oasis|saline\s+lake|endorheic|aral\s+sea|playa|agro-pastoral|overgrazing|shelterbelt|sand\s+fixation)\b",
"components": ["dryland", "lake"],
"media": ["soil", "freshwater_surface"],
"processes": ["ecosystem_disturbance_and_biophysical_feedback", "hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff"],
"spatial_scale": "regional",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Root/vadose zone to regional boundary layer",
"observables": [
"multi-decadal satellite vegetation/albedo/water-body time series, groundwater monitoring wells, and dust deposition traps",
"coupled ecohydrological-socioeconomic water balance models across endorheic river basins",
],
"inferred": [
"critical grazing and water-diversion thresholds triggering irreversible dryland state shifts and terminal-lake desiccation",
"regional water-table drawdown vs. microclimatic cooling trade-offs of dryland afforestation and oasis expansion",
],
"forcings": "aridity index increases, upstream irrigation diversions, and livestock grazing intensity",
"boundaries": "endorheic basin closed water budget, shallow groundwater salinity, and aeolian sand supply",
},
{
"sub_id": "coupled_human_natural_coastal_infra_risk",
"keywords": r"\b(coupled\s+human|socio-environmental|nature-based\s+solution|living\s+shoreline|beach\s+nourishment|seawall|polder|managed\s+retreat|compound\s+flood\w*|fluvial-pluvial-coastal|multi-hazard)\b",
"components": ["human_built_coastal_urban_interface", "coast"],
"media": ["urban_built_substrate", "seawater"],
"processes": ["coastal_and_estuarine_morphodynamics", "hydrological_partitioning_and_runoff"],
"spatial_scale": "coastal_cell",
"temporal_scale": "interannual_to_decadal",
"depth_range": "Coastal nearshore to floodplain",
"observables": [
"joint tide-gauge, river-discharge, and radar-rainfall extreme value series and hydrodynamic compound-flood hindcasts",
"long-term morphological monitoring of hard coastal defenses versus nature-based sediment nourishments",
],
"inferred": [
"statistical dependence and physical phase-locking between storm surge, extreme rainfall runoff, and coastal wave setup",
"maladaptive lock-in ('levee/seawall effect') whereby coastal armoring accelerates adjacent downdrift erosion and subsidence",
],
"forcings": "landfalling tropical/extratropical cyclones, sea-level rise, and coastal engineering interventions",
"boundaries": "estuarine funneling geometry, seawall/levee crest elevations, and sediment littoral cell connectivity",
},
],
}
# Paper-specific observable patterns to enrich observables dynamically from paper text
SPECIFIC_OBSERVABLE_RULES = [
(r"\b(zircon|u-pb|lu-hf)\b", "laser-ablation ICP-MS/SIMS zircon U-Pb geochronology and Lu-Hf isotope ratios"),
(r"\b(speleothem|stalagmite)\b", "U-Th dated speleothem delta-18O, delta-13C, and trace-element laminae records"),
(r"\b(foraminifer\w*|alkenone|tex86)\b", "planktic/benthic foraminiferal Mg/Ca, delta-18O, and organic biomarker paleothermometry"),
(r"\b(cosmogenic|10be|26al)\b", "in-situ terrestrial cosmogenic nuclide (10Be, 26Al) surface exposure and denudation inventories"),
(r"\b(insar|gnss|gps)\b", "multi-temporal InSAR surface displacement velocity fields and continuous GNSS station networks"),
(r"\b(receiver\s+function|ambient\s+noise|shear-wave\s+splitting|tomograph\w+)\b", "broadband seismic tomography, receiver-function conversions, and shear-wave splitting measurements"),
(r"\b(magnetotelluric|electrical\s+resistivity|ert)\b", "deep magnetotelluric (MT) and electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) conductivity inversions"),
(r"\b(eddy\s+covariance|flux\s+tower)\b", "multi-year eddy-covariance micrometeorological flux-tower CO2, H2O, and energy exchange measurements"),
(r"\b(argo|glider|ctd)\b", "autonomous Argo/BGC-Argo profiling floats, ocean gliders, and shipboard CTD hydrographic sections"),
(r"\b(grace|grace-fo)\b", "GRACE/GRACE-FO satellite gravimetry terrestrial water storage and ice-mass anomaly fields"),
(r"\b(lidar|sfm|photogrammetry)\b", "high-resolution airborne/terrestrial LiDAR and structure-from-motion (SfM) topographic differencing"),
(r"\b(exafs|xanes|synchrotron|mössbauer|nmr|ft-icr-ms)\b", "synchrotron X-ray absorption spectroscopy (EXAFS/XANES) and high-resolution molecular spectroscopy"),
(r"\b(metagenom\w*|metatranscriptom\w*|16s\s+rrna|qpcr)\b", "high-throughput metagenomic/metatranscriptomic sequencing and functional gene abundance profiling"),
(r"\b(clumped\s+isotop\w*|delta47|Δ47)\b", "carbonate clumped-isotope (Delta47) paleothermometry and fluid delta-18O reconstructions"),
(r"\b(boron\s+isotop\w*|δ11b)\b", "boron-isotope (delta-11B) pH and carbonate-system proxy measurements"),
(r"\b(neodymium|εnd|radiogenic\s+pb|87sr/86sr)\b", "radiogenic Sr-Nd-Pb-Hf isotope provenance and water-mass tracer ratios"),
(r"\b(radar|doppler|himawari|goes|modis|sentinel|landsat|tropomi|oco-2|icesat)\b", "multi-spectral/active satellite remote sensing and Doppler radar vertical profile retrievals"),
]
# Expanded regional detection rules (35 specific Earth regions)
REGION_RULES = [
(r"\b(tibet\w*|himalay\w*|karakoram|pamir|hindu\s+kush|hengduan|tarim|qaidam|tianshan|tian\s+shan)\b", "Himalaya–Tibetan Plateau and Central Asian Orogenic System"),
(r"\b(north\s+china\s+craton|yangtze\s+craton|south\s+china\s+block|qinling|dabie|cathaysia|orodos|sichuan\s+basin|loess\s+plateau|yellow\s+river|yangtze\s+river)\b", "East Asian Cratons, Monsoon Basins, and Loess Plateau"),
(r"\b(south\s+china\s+sea|east\s+china\s+sea|yellow\s+sea|bohai|kuroshio|okinawa\s+trough|western\s+pacific|mariana|izu-bonin|philippine\s+sea|japan\s+trench|nankai)\b", "Western Pacific Margin, Marginal Seas, and Subduction Trenches"),
(r"\b(andes|andean|altiplano|atacama|patagoni\w*|peru-chile|nazca)\b", "Andean Cordillera and Peru–Chile Subduction Margin"),
(r"\b(amazon\w*|congo\s+basin|borneo|indonesia\w*|maritime\s+continent|pantanal|cerrado)\b", "Humid Tropical River Basins and Maritime Continent"),
(r"\b(antarct\w*|southern\s+ocean|weddell|ross\s+sea|amundsen|thwaites|pine\s+island|east\s+antarctic|west\s+antarctic)\b", "Antarctica and the Southern Ocean"),
(r"\b(arctic|greenland|svalbard|barents|beaufort|chukchi|laptev|east\s+siberian|permafrost|boreal|alaska|yukon|mackenzie)\b", "Pan-Arctic Cryosphere, Greenland, and Boreal Permafrost Domain"),
(r"\b(north\s+atlantic|subpolar\s+gyre|labrador\s+sea|irminger|nordic\s+seas|iceland\w*|gulf\s+stream|mid-atlantic\s+ridge)\b", "North Atlantic Basin and Mid-Atlantic Ridge"),
(r"\b(mediterranean|alps|alpine|apennine\w*|aegean|hellenic|anatolia\w*|pyrenees|carpathian\w*|black\s+sea|red\s+sea|dead\s+sea)\b", "Alpine–Mediterranean Orogenic Belt and Marginal Seas"),
(r"\b(east\s+african\s+rift|ethiopian\s+rift|afar|turkana|tanganyika|malawi|sahel|sahara\w*|namib|kalahari|southern\s+africa|kaapvaal)\b", "African Rift Systems, Cratons, and Sahel–Sahara Drylands"),
(r"\b(cascadia|san\s+andreas|california|sierra\s+nevada|basin\s+and\s+range|colorado\s+plateau|yellowstone|appalachian\w*|gulf\s+of\s+mexico|mississippi|great\s+lakes|cheasapeake)\b", "North American Cordilleran, Cratonic, and Coastal Margin Systems"),
(r"\b(indian\s+ocean|bay\s+of\s+bengal|arabian\s+sea|indo-gangetic|ganges|brahmaputra|indus|deccan|western\s+ghats)\b", "Indian Ocean Basin and South Asian Monsoon System"),
(r"\b(australia\w*|great\s+barrier\s+reef|murray-darling|pilbara|yilgarn|tasman|new\s+zealand|hikurangi|alpine\s+fault)\b", "Australasian Cratons, Reefs, and Hikurangi–Alpine Margin"),
(r"\b(equatorial\s+pacific|eastern\s+tropical\s+pacific|central\s+pacific|galapagos|hawaii\w*|east\s+pacific\s+rise|peruvian\s+upwelling)\b", "Tropical Pacific Upwelling, ENSO Waveguide, and East Pacific Rise"),
]
ERA_RULES = [
(r"\b(hadean|archean|archaean|paleoproterozoic|mesoproterozoic|neoproterozoic|ediacaran|precambrian|great\s+oxidation|snowball\s+earth)\b", "Precambrian"),
(r"\b(cambrian|ordovician|silurian|devonian|carboniferous|permian|paleozoic|end-permian)\b", "Paleozoic"),
(r"\b(triassic|jurassic|cretaceous|mesozoic|cenomanian|turonian|aptian|toarcian)\b", "Mesozoic"),
(r"\b(paleocene|eocene|oligocene|miocene|pliocene|paleogene|neogene|petm|cenozoic)\b", "Cenozoic"),
(r"\b(pleistocene|last\s+glacial|lgm|deglaciation|younger\s+dryas|heinrich|interglacial|quaternary)\b", "Pleistocene"),
(r"\b(holocene|mid-holocene|late\s+holocene|little\s+ice\s+age|medieval\s+climate)\b", "Holocene"),
(r"\b(anthropocene|future|projection|cmip6|ssp\d|21st\s+century|warming\s+world|urban|pfas|microplastic|industrial)\b", "Anthropocene"),
]
for _cid, _plist in SUBTOPIC_PROFILES.items():
for _p in _plist:
_p["_rx"] = re.compile(_p["keywords"], flags=re.I)
_COMPILED_OBS_RULES = [(re.compile(pat, flags=re.I), label) for pat, label in SPECIFIC_OBSERVABLE_RULES]
_COMPILED_REGION_RULES = [(re.compile(pat, flags=re.I), label) for pat, label in REGION_RULES]
_COMPILED_ERA_RULES = [(re.compile(pat, flags=re.I), label) for pat, label in ERA_RULES]
def match_subtopic_profile(cat_id, title, open_sent, abstract=""):
"""Select the best-matching sub-discipline profile within cat_id using keyword overlap."""
profiles = SUBTOPIC_PROFILES[cat_id]
text = f"{title} {title} {open_sent} {abstract}".lower()
default_idx = 4 if cat_id == 1 else (1 if cat_id == 3 else 0)
best_prof = profiles[default_idx]
best_score = 0
for prof in profiles:
matches = prof["_rx"].findall(text)
score = len(matches) * 3 + len(set(matches)) * 5
if score > best_score:
best_score = score
best_prof = prof
return best_prof
def extract_rich_metadata(title, open_sent, abstract, sub_prof, idx_in_cat):
"""Extract paper-specific observables, region, and geologic era."""
text = f"{title} {open_sent} {abstract}"
obs = []
for rx, label in _COMPILED_OBS_RULES:
if rx.search(text) and label not in obs:
obs.append(label)
if len(obs) == 2:
break
for default_obs in sub_prof["observables"]:
if len(obs) < 2 and default_obs not in obs:
obs.append(default_obs)
region = None
for rx, reg_label in _COMPILED_REGION_RULES:
if rx.search(text):
region = reg_label
break
if not region:
region_defaults = {
"core_dynamo_inner_core": "Planetary Deep Interior (Inner and Outer Core)",
"lower_mantle_plumes_transition_zone": "Global Mantle Transition Zone and Lower Mantle",
"subduction_slab_mantle_wedge": "Circum-Pacific and Tethyan Subduction Margins",
"continental_rifting_breakup_margins": "Continental Rift Systems and Rifted Passive Margins",
"craton_orogen_continental_crust": "Archean–Proterozoic Cratons and Continental Orogens",
"earthquake_rupture_fault_mechanics": "Plate-Boundary and Intraplate Seismogenic Fault Zones",
"slow_slip_tremor_megathrust": "Subduction Megathrust Interfaces",
"volcanic_plumbing_eruption_degassing": "Active Arc, Rift, and Hotspot Volcanic Systems",
"tsunami_seafloor_displacement": "Tsunamigenic Subduction Trenches and Coastal Margins",
"landslide_debris_flow_mass_wasting": "Steep Orogenic Hillslopes and Volcanic Edifices",
"low_temp_aqueous_clay_sorption_interface": "Near-Surface Mineral–Water Interfaces and Regolith",
"igneous_petrology_magmatic_differentiation": "Crustal and Upper-Mantle Magmatic Provinces",
"hydrothermal_ore_deposits_metallogeny": "Magmatic–Hydrothermal and Submarine Metallogenic Belts",
"isotope_geochemistry_geochronology": "Crustal and Mantle Geochemical Reservoirs",
"high_pressure_mineral_physics_metamorphism": "High-Pressure Metamorphic Terranes and Deep Lithosphere",
}
region = region_defaults.get(sub_prof["sub_id"], "Global and Representative Regional Observatories")
era = None
for rx, era_label in _COMPILED_ERA_RULES:
if rx.search(text):
era = era_label
break
if not era:
if sub_prof["temporal_scale"] in ("geological_deep_time", "billion_year_planetary", "multi_million_year_tectonic"):
era = "Cenozoic"
elif sub_prof["temporal_scale"] in ("millennial_to_orbital", "centennial_to_millennial"):
era = "Quaternary"
else:
era = "Holocene" if idx_in_cat % 2 == 0 else "Anthropocene"
return obs, region, era
# Finite declarative verbs commonly found in research paper titles
DECLARATIVE_VERB_MAP = [
(r"^(.+?)\s+(?:shows?|demonstrates?|indicates?|suggests?|supports?|implies?)\s+(?:that\s+)?(.+)$", "Evidence from {0} for {1}", "how {0} relates to {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+drives\s+(.+)$", "Controls of {0} on {1}", "how {0} drives {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+drive\s+(.+)$", "Controls of {0} on {1}", "how {0} drive {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+controls?\s+(.+)$", "Controls of {0} on {1}", "how {0} controls {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+tracks?\s+(.+)$", "Tracking of {1} by {0}", "how {0} tracks {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+reveals?\s+(.+)$", "{1} Inferred from {0}", "how {0} constrains {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+governs?\s+(.+)$", "Mechanisms by Which {0} Governs {1}", "how {0} governs {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+regulates?\s+(.+)$", "Regulation of {1} by {0}", "how {0} regulates {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+determines?\s+(.+)$", "Determination of {1} by {0}", "how {0} determines {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+influences?\s+(.+)$", "Influence of {0} on {1}", "how {0} influences {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+affects?\s+(.+)$", "Effects of {0} on {1}", "how {0} affects {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+promotes?\s+(.+)$", "Role of {0} in Promoting {1}", "how {0} promotes {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+enhances?\s+(.+)$", "Enhancement of {1} by {0}", "how {0} enhances {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+accelerates?\s+(.+)$", "Acceleration of {1} by {0}", "how {0} accelerates {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+triggers?\s+(.+)$", "Triggering of {1} by {0}", "how {0} triggers {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+induces?\s+(.+)$", "Induction of {1} by {0}", "how {0} induces {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+causes?\s+(.+)$", "Causal Link Between {0} and {1}", "how {0} causes {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+suppresses?\s+(.+)$", "Suppression of {1} by {0}", "how {0} suppresses {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+mitigates?\s+(.+)$", "Modulation of {1} by {0}", "how {0} modulates {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+modulates?\s+(.+)$", "Modulation of {1} by {0}", "how {0} modulates {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+dominates?\s+(.+)$", "Dominance of {0} in {1}", "the extent to which {0} dominates {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+explains?\s+(.+)$", "Mechanisms Explaining {1} via {0}", "whether {0} explains {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+shapes?\s+(.+)$", "Influence of {0} on {1}", "how {0} shapes {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+alters?\s+(.+)$", "Alteration of {1} by {0}", "how {0} alters {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+amplifies?\s+(.+)$", "Amplification of {1} by {0}", "how {0} amplifies {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+weakens?\s+(.+)$", "Weakening of {1} by {0}", "how {0} weakens {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+stabilizes?\s+(.+)$", "Stabilization of {1} by {0}", "how {0} stabilizes {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+constrains?\s+(.+)$", "Constraints from {0} on {1}", "how {0} constrains {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+limits?\s+(.+)$", "Limitation of {1} by {0}", "how {0} limits {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+sustains?\s+(.+)$", "Sustaining of {1} by {0}", "how {0} sustains {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+maintains?\s+(.+)$", "Maintenance of {1} by {0}", "how {0} maintains {1}"),
(r"^(.+?)\s+is\s+(?:recycled|transported|mobilized|trapped|stored|released)\s+(.+)$", "Mechanisms of {0} Cycling {1}", "how {0} is cycled {1}"),
]
_COMPILED_DECL_MAP = [(re.compile(pat, flags=re.I), tf, sf) for pat, tf, sf in DECLARATIVE_VERB_MAP]
_RX_BAD_DECL_A = re.compile(r"\b(?:as|for|to|of|in|on|with|by|from|and|or|the|a|an|their|its|our|between|among|under|during|through|via)$", re.I)
_RX_BAD_DECL_B = re.compile(r"^(?:of|in|on|for|from|with|by|at|to|and|or|as|between|among)\b", re.I)
def clean_and_nominalize_title(raw_title):
"""
Return (clean_problem_title, grammatical_subject_phrase) so that declarative paper titles
never cause double-verb collisions, mid-sentence colons, or Title-Case artifacts when embedded in questions.
"""
t = re.sub(r"<[^>]+>", "", raw_title or "").strip().rstrip(".")
t = re.sub(r"\s+", " ", t)
# Convert leading "What drives X" / "What controls X" into "Drivers of X" / "Controls on X"
t = re.sub(r"^what\s+drives\s+(?:the\s+)?", "Drivers of ", t, flags=re.I)
t = re.sub(r"^what\s+controls\s+(?:the\s+)?", "Controls on ", t, flags=re.I)
# Strip conversational paper-style suffixes after colon/dash
t = re.sub(
r"\s*[:–—-]\s*(?:a\s+key\s+to\s+understanding\s+|insights?\s+from\s+|evidence\s+from\s+|"
r"a\s+case\s+study\s+(?:of|from|in)\s+|new\s+constraints?\s+(?:from|on)\s+|"
r"implications?\s+for\s+|a\s+review\s+of\s+|perspectives?\s+from\s+)(.+)$",
r" (\1)",
t,
flags=re.I,
)
t = re.sub(r"\s*[:–—-]\s*a\s+review$", "", t, flags=re.I)
# Strip leading gerunds like "Quantifying the ...", "Understanding the ...", "Assessing the ..."
t_core = re.sub(
r"^(?:quantifying|understanding|assessing|evaluating|investigating|exploring|unraveling|deciphering|probing|revisiting|constraining|characterizing|modeling|simulating)\s+(?:the\s+)?",
"",
t,
flags=re.I,
)
if len(t_core) >= 20:
t = t_core[0].upper() + t_core[1:]
# Replace secondary compound verbs ("and reveals", "and shows", "and indicates")
t = re.sub(r"\b(?:and|which)\s+(?:reveals?|shows?|demonstrates?|indicates?|suggests?)\b", "and", t, flags=re.I)
if t.endswith("?"):
q_clean = t.rstrip("?").strip()
subj = normalize_mid_sentence_case(q_clean[0].lower() + q_clean[1:])
return q_clean, subj
for rx, title_fmt, subj_fmt in _COMPILED_DECL_MAP:
m = rx.match(t)
if m:
a = m.group(1).strip()
b = m.group(2).strip()
if len(a) >= 4 and len(b) >= 4 and not _RX_BAD_DECL_A.search(a) and not _RX_BAD_DECL_B.search(b):
a_low = a[0].lower() + a[1:] if not a[:2].isupper() else a
b_low = b[0].lower() + b[1:] if not b[:2].isupper() else b
new_title = title_fmt.format(a, b)
new_subj = normalize_mid_sentence_case(subj_fmt.format(a_low, b_low))
return new_title, new_subj
subj = normalize_mid_sentence_case(t)
return t, subj
_RX_FIRST_PERSON = re.compile(
r"\b(?:we\s+|our\s+(?:study|work|paper|results|model|data|simulations|findings|approach|analysis|method|experiments|observations|measurements)|this\s+study|this\s+paper|have\s+explored|was\s+based)\b",
re.I,
)
_RX_POST = re.compile(
r"(?:remains?|is|are|has\s+remained|have\s+remained|remain\s+to\s+be|has\s+yet\s+to\s+be)\s+"
r"(?:(?:at\s+present|currently|generally|relatively|often|very|somewhat|quite|still|largely|poorly|widely|highly|mostly|badly|yet\s+to\s+be|not\s+well|not\s+fully|not\s+yet|rarely|seldom|as\s+yet|hotly|actively)\s+)*"
r"(?:unclear|unknown|debated|controversial|unresolved|elusive|underconstrained|unconstrained|understood|constrained|quantified|determined|explored|documented|resolved|clear|known|open\s+question|unanswered|a\s+topic\s+of\s+debate|a\s+matter\s+of\s+debate|under\s+debate)\s*"
r"(?:as\s+to\s+|regarding\s+|concerning\s+|is\s+)?"
r"((?:whether|if|how|why|what|to\s+what\s+extent|which|when|where)\b.{18,240})",
re.I,
)
_RX_PRE = re.compile(
r"(?:^|(?:however|yet|nevertheless|nonetheless|but|whilst|while|whereas|although[^,;]+,|because[^,;]+,|despite[^,;]+,|and|;\s*)\s*,?\s*)"
r"([A-Za-zδΔε][^.?!;:]{10,190}?)\s+"
r"(?:remains?|is|are|has\s+remained|have\s+remained|has\s+been|have\s+been|remain|continue\s+to\s+be|continues\s+to\s+be)\s+"
r"(?:as\s+)?(?:(?:at\s+present|currently|generally|relatively|often|very|somewhat|quite|still|largely|poorly|widely|highly|mostly|badly|not\s+well|not\s+fully|not\s+yet|inhomogeneously|incompletely|rarely|seldom|yet\s+to\s+be|as\s+yet|hotly|actively|hence)\s+)*"
r"(?:unclear|unknown|debated|controversial|unresolved|elusive|underconstrained|unconstrained|poorly\s+constrained|poorly\s+understood|not\s+well\s+understood|not\s+fully\s+understood|constrained|understood|quantified|documented|resolved|determined|lacking|open|uncertain|enigmatic|unanswered|an\s+open\s+question|a\s+fundamental\s+question|a\s+major\s+challenge|a\s+key\s+challenge|subject\s+to\s+debate|a\s+matter\s+of\s+debate|a\s+topic\s+of\s+debate|under\s+debate|in\s+debate|to\s+be\s+determined|to\s+be\s+resolved|to\s+be\s+quantified)",
re.I,
)
_RX_MOD = re.compile(
r"\b(?:poorly\s+constrained|poorly\s+understood|poorly\s+documented|rarely\s+quantified|unresolved|long-standing\s+debate\s+(?:over|on|regarding)|fundamental\s+questions?\s+(?:on|about|regarding|related\s+to))\s+([a-zA-ZδΔ][^.?!;:]{12,140})",
re.I,
)
_RX_LITTLE = re.compile(
r"\b(?:little\s+is\s+known\s+(?:about|regarding|on|concerning)|"
r"few\s+studies\s+have\s+(?:quantified|examined|investigated|constrained|addressed|evaluated|explored)|"
r"lack\s+(?:of\s+)?(?:a\s+)?(?:consensus|quantitative\s+understanding|mechanistic\s+understanding)\s+(?:on|regarding|of|about)|"
r"there\s+is\s+no\s+consensus\s+(?:on|regarding|about|as\s+to)|"
r"(?:open\s+questions?|major\s+uncertainties|fundamental\s+uncertainties|significant\s+uncertainties|key\s+questions?|fundamental\s+questions?)\s+(?:still\s+)?(?:remain\s+|exist\s+|persist\s+)?(?:regarding|about|on|concerning|in|related\s+to|surrounding|include)\s*[:\-]?)\s*"
r"([A-Za-zδΔε][^.?!;:]{14,180})",
re.I,
)
_RX_CHALLENGE = re.compile(
r"([A-Za-zδΔε][^.?!;:]{14,160}?)\s+(?:poses?\s+a\s+(?:major|fundamental|key|significant|critical)\s+challenge|is\s+one\s+of\s+the\s+most\s+(?:uncertain|controversial|debated|challenging)\b[^.?!;:]{0,50})",
re.I,
)
def extract_open_clause_from_sentence(open_sent, subj_phrase):
"""
Parse the open-problem sentence from the paper abstract into a structured research question core.
Handles post-predicate wh-clauses, pre-predicate open subjects, contrast gaps, and direct questions.
"""
if not open_sent:
return None, None
s = re.sub(r"<[^>]+>", " ", open_sent)
s = re.sub(r"^(?:Abstract|Summary|Plain\s+Language\s+Summary|Key\s+Points)\s*[:.\-]?\s*", "", s, flags=re.I)
# Strip inline superscript reference numbers attached to words (e.g. "plumes5", "lithosphere4,6")
s = re.sub(r"(?<=[a-zA-Z\)])\d+(?:[,\-–]\d+)*", "", s)
# Normalize impersonal "our understanding of " / "our knowledge of "
s = re.sub(r"\bour\s+(?:understanding|knowledge)\s+of\s+", "the mechanisms of ", s, flags=re.I)
# Remove comma-bounded transitional adverbs
s = re.sub(r",\s*(?:however|nevertheless|nonetheless|therefore|thus|consequently|moreover|furthermore|for\s+example|in\s+particular|in\s+contrast)\s*,", " ", s, flags=re.I)
s = re.sub(r"\s+", " ", s).strip()
def de_anaphorize(cl):
cl = re.sub(r"^(?:however|yet|nevertheless|nonetheless|but|although|while|whereas|consequently|therefore|thus|still|nonetheless|furthermore|moreover)\s*,?\s*", "", cl, flags=re.I)
cl = re.sub(r"\b(?:in\s+this\s+study|in\s+this\s+work|in\s+this\s+paper|here\s+we\s+\w+|in\s+this\s+region|in\s+this\s+area|in\s+the\s+study\s+area)\b", "", cl, flags=re.I)
cl = re.sub(r"\s+\bthere\b", "", cl, flags=re.I)
# If there is a comma where the preceding clause is a subordinate/introductory clause or contains a finite verb, take the final segment after the comma (unless cl starts with a WH-word)
if ", " in cl and not cl.lower().startswith(("whether ", "how ", "why ", "what ", "to what extent ")):
parts = [p.strip() for p in cl.split(", ") if p.strip()]
if len(parts) >= 2:
prefix = " ".join(parts[:-1])
if re.search(
r"\b(?:although|while|whereas|despite|because|since|when|if|many|most|several|previous|studies|have|has|had|was|were|is|are|explored|investigated|documented|known|based|observed|reported|shown|found|believed|proposed|due\s+to|owing\s+to|in\s+the\s+absence)\b",
prefix,
flags=re.I,
):
cl = parts[-1]
# Replace demonstrative/possessive anaphors without duplicating head nouns already in subj_phrase
def _replace_possessive(m):
noun = m.group(1).strip()
head_word = noun.split()[0].lower()
if len(head_word) >= 4 and head_word in subj_phrase.lower():
return f"the {noun}"
return f"the {noun} of {subj_phrase}"
cl = re.sub(
r"^\b(?:its|their|this|these|such)\s+([a-z][a-z\s\-]{3,45})\b",
_replace_possessive,
cl,
flags=re.I,
)
cl = re.sub(
r"\b(?:this|these)\s+(change|process|processes|mechanism|mechanisms|transport|phenomenon|effect|effects|weakness|weaknesses|interaction|interactions|variation|variability|feature|features|anomaly|anomalies|transition|relationship|relationships)\b",
lambda m: f"the {m.group(1)}",
cl,
flags=re.I,
)
cl = re.sub(r"\s*:\s*", " — ", cl)
cl = normalize_mid_sentence_case(cl)
return re.sub(r"\s+", " ", cl).strip().rstrip(".,;:")
# 1. Direct question in open_sentence
if "?" in s:
q_part = s.split("?")[0].strip()
if ":" in q_part and len(q_part.split(":")[-1].strip()) > 25:
q_part = q_part.split(":")[-1].strip()
q_part = re.sub(r"\s*:\s*", " — ", q_part)
if len(q_part) >= 28 and not _RX_FIRST_PERSON.search(q_part):
return "direct_q", q_part[0].upper() + q_part[1:] + "?"
# 2. Post-predicate WH-clause
m_post = _RX_POST.search(s)
if m_post:
cl = de_anaphorize(m_post.group(1))
if len(cl) >= 20 and not _RX_FIRST_PERSON.search(cl):
return "post_wh", cl
# 3. Pre-predicate open subject
m_pre = _RX_PRE.search(s)
if m_pre:
cl = de_anaphorize(m_pre.group(1))
if len(cl) >= 12 and not _RX_FIRST_PERSON.search(cl):
return "pre_subj", cl
# 4. Noun phrase with embedded "poorly constrained / poorly understood / unresolved" modifier
m_mod = _RX_MOD.search(s)
if m_mod:
cl = de_anaphorize(m_mod.group(1))
if len(cl) >= 14 and not _RX_FIRST_PERSON.search(cl):
return "pre_subj", cl
# 5. "little is known about ...", "few studies have quantified ...", "open questions remain regarding ..."
m_little = _RX_LITTLE.search(s)
if m_little:
cl = de_anaphorize(m_little.group(1))
if len(cl) >= 14 and not _RX_FIRST_PERSON.search(cl):
if cl.lower().startswith(("whether ", "if ", "how ", "why ", "what ", "to what extent ", "which ", "when ", "where ")):
return "post_wh", cl
return "pre_subj", cl
# 6. "... poses a major challenge ..." / "... is one of the most uncertain/controversial ..."
m_chal = _RX_CHALLENGE.search(s)
if m_chal:
cl = de_anaphorize(m_chal.group(1))
if len(cl) >= 14 and not _RX_FIRST_PERSON.search(cl):
return "pre_subj", cl
return None, None
def synthesize_grounded_statements(title, open_sent, abstract, sub_prof, obs_list, region, idx_in_cat):
"""
Synthesize (clean_title, statement, plain_statement, precise_statement, what_would_settle_it, is_grounded).
Guarantees 0 mid-sentence colons, 0 Title-Case artifacts, and embeds sub-discipline governing equations in precise_statement.
"""
clean_title, subj = clean_and_nominalize_title(title)
kind, cl = extract_open_clause_from_sentence(open_sent, subj)
comp = sub_prof["components"][0].replace("_", " ")
med = sub_prof["media"][0].replace("_", " ")
proc0 = sub_prof["processes"][0].replace("_", " ")
proc1 = sub_prof["processes"][1].replace("_", " ")
obs0 = obs_list[0]
obs1 = obs_list[1] if len(obs_list) > 1 else sub_prof["observables"][-1]
inf0 = sub_prof["inferred"][idx_in_cat % len(sub_prof["inferred"])]
forc = sub_prof["forcings"]
bndry = sub_prof["boundaries"]
depth = sub_prof["depth_range"]
gov_eqs = GOVERNING_RELATIONS_BY_SUB_ID[sub_prof["sub_id"]]
gov_eq = gov_eqs[idx_in_cat % len(gov_eqs)]
if kind == "direct_q":
statement = cl
elif kind == "post_wh":
cl_low = cl[0].lower() + cl[1:] if not cl[:2].isupper() else cl
if cl_low.lower().startswith(("whether ", "if ")):
body = re.sub(r"^(?:whether|if)\s+", "", cl_low, flags=re.I)
statement = f"Regarding {subj}, what mechanisms determine whether {body}?"
elif cl_low.lower().startswith(("how ", "why ", "what ", "which ", "when ", "where ")):
subj_words = set(re.findall(r"[a-z]{4,}", subj.lower()))
cl_words = set(re.findall(r"[a-z]{4,}", cl_low.lower()))
if len(subj_words & cl_words) >= 2:
statement = f"In {comp} systems, {cl_low}, and how is this governed by {forc}?"
else:
statement = f"In the context of {subj}, {cl_low}?"
else:
statement = f"Regarding {subj}, {cl_low} under varying {bndry}?"
elif kind == "pre_subj":
cl_low = cl[0].lower() + cl[1:] if not cl[:2].isupper() else cl
subj_words = set(re.findall(r"[a-z]{4,}", subj.lower()))
cl_words = set(re.findall(r"[a-z]{4,}", cl_low.lower()))
overlap = len(subj_words & cl_words)
if cl_low.lower().startswith(("how ", "why ", "what ", "whether ")):
if overlap >= 2:
statement = f"Within {comp} environments, what physical and chemical processes determine {cl_low}?"
else:
statement = f"In the study of {subj}, what mechanisms determine {cl_low}?"
else:
if overlap >= 2:
q_patterns = [
f"What physical, chemical, and dynamical mechanisms govern {cl_low}, and how do {forc} interact with {bndry}?",
f"How can {cl_low} be quantitatively constrained across {region}, and what is the relative importance of {proc0} versus {proc1}?",
f"What processes control {cl_low} within the {comp}, and what thresholds govern its response to {forc}?",
]
else:
q_patterns = [
f"In the context of {subj}, what mechanisms govern {cl_low}, and how is it modulated by {bndry}?",
f"Regarding {subj}, how do {proc0} and {forc} control {cl_low} across {region}?",
f"What quantitative constraints govern {cl_low} in {subj}, and how does this resolve {inf0}?",
]
statement = q_patterns[idx_in_cat % len(q_patterns)]
else:
sub_templates = [
f"What physical and biogeochemical mechanisms govern {subj} within the {comp}, and how do {forc} interact with {bndry}?",
f"How do coupled processes of {proc0} and {proc1} in {med} control {subj} across {region}, and how can {obs0} resolve {inf0}?",
f"What are the relative causal contributions of {forc} and {bndry} in controlling {subj}, and what thresholds govern {inf0}?",
]
statement = sub_templates[idx_in_cat % len(sub_templates)]
statement = re.sub(r"\s*:\s*", " — ", statement)
statement = re.sub(r"\s+", " ", statement).strip().rstrip(".?!") + "?"
if kind in ("pre_subj", "post_wh") and cl and len(cl) < 110:
cl_short = cl[0].lower() + cl[1:] if not cl[:2].isupper() else cl
plain_templates = [
f"What natural processes control {cl_short} in relation to {subj}?",
f"How do {proc0} and environmental conditions govern {cl_short} in {subj}?",
f"Why does {subj} remain difficult to predict, and what controls {cl_short} in Earth's {comp}?",
]
else:
plain_templates = [
f"What natural processes control {subj} in Earth's {comp}, and how does it respond to {forc}?",
f"How do {proc0} and {med} properties work together to govern {subj} across {region}?",
f"Why does {subj} vary across space and time, and what observations can resolve {inf0}?",
]
plain_statement = re.sub(r"\s*:\s*", " — ", plain_templates[idx_in_cat % len(plain_templates)])
plain_statement = re.sub(r"\s+", " ", plain_statement).strip().rstrip(".?!") + "?"
precise_statement = (
f"Within {med} of the {comp} ({depth}), how do {forc} and {bndry} interact via {proc0} "
f"(governed by {gov_eq}) to control {subj}, and can {obs0} uniquely resolve {inf0}?"
)
precise_statement = re.sub(r"\s*:\s*", " — ", precise_statement)
precise_statement = re.sub(r"\s+", " ", precise_statement).strip().rstrip(".?!") + "?"
what_would_settle_it = (
f"Co-located observations of {obs0} and {obs1} coupled with "
f"process-resolving models of {proc0} to constrain {inf0}."
)
return clean_title, statement, plain_statement, precise_statement, what_would_settle_it, kind is not None
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