Daily Papers

In the field of MLLM-based GUI agents, compared to smartphones, the PC scenario not only features a more complex interactive environment, but also involves more intricate intra- and inter-app workflows. To address these issues, we propose a hierarchical agent framework named PC-Agent. Specifically, from the perception perspective, we devise an Active Perception Module (APM) to overcome the inadequate abilities of current MLLMs in perceiving screenshot content. From the decision-making perspective, to handle complex user instructions and interdependent subtasks more effectively, we propose a hierarchical multi-agent collaboration architecture that decomposes decision-making processes into Instruction-Subtask-Action levels. Within this architecture, three agents (i.e., Manager, Progress and Decision) are set up for instruction decomposition, progress tracking and step-by-step decision-making respectively. Additionally, a Reflection agent is adopted to enable timely bottom-up error feedback and adjustment. We also introduce a new benchmark PC-Eval with 25 real-world complex instructions. Empirical results on PC-Eval show that our PC-Agent achieves a 32% absolute improvement of task success rate over previous state-of-the-art methods. The code will be publicly available.

Building autonomous robotic agents capable of achieving human-level performance in real-world embodied tasks is an ultimate goal in humanoid robot research. Recent advances have made significant progress in high-level cognition with Foundation Models (FMs) and low-level skill development for humanoid robots. However, directly combining these components often results in poor robustness and efficiency due to compounding errors in long-horizon tasks and the varied latency of different modules. We introduce Being-0, a hierarchical agent framework that integrates an FM with a modular skill library. The FM handles high-level cognitive tasks such as instruction understanding, task planning, and reasoning, while the skill library provides stable locomotion and dexterous manipulation for low-level control. To bridge the gap between these levels, we propose a novel Connector module, powered by a lightweight vision-language model (VLM). The Connector enhances the FM's embodied capabilities by translating language-based plans into actionable skill commands and dynamically coordinating locomotion and manipulation to improve task success. With all components, except the FM, deployable on low-cost onboard computation devices, Being-0 achieves efficient, real-time performance on a full-sized humanoid robot equipped with dexterous hands and active vision. Extensive experiments in large indoor environments demonstrate Being-0's effectiveness in solving complex, long-horizon tasks that require challenging navigation and manipulation subtasks. For further details and videos, visit https://beingbeyond.github.io/being-0.

Machine learning engineering (MLE) tasks require long-horizon decision making over iterative solution debugging and refinement, under expensive and feedback-driven environment interactions. Developing and training a monolithic agent for such tasks is fundamentally challenging, as it must simultaneously manage extremely long and noisy contexts, explore vast solution spaces, and remain effective under limited model capacity and computational budgets. To address these challenges, we propose Matryoshka Agent, a unified hierarchical agent framework for complex long-horizon tasks. Matryoshka Agent decomposes agentic problem solving into a coordinated hierarchy of decision making and execution: a high-level Orchestrator maintains compact, long-horizon exploration states and issues strategic instructions, while lower-level Sub-Agents execute concrete solution attempts through direct environment interaction, mediated by standardized Tool interface. This design decouples strategic exploration from costly execution, substantially reducing the burden of long-context reasoning and enabling efficient iterative refinement. We further develop an efficient training paradigm for Matryoshka Agent. Experimental results on a broad range of MLE tasks with diverse model types and scales demonstrate that Matryoshka Agent is an effective and scalable paradigm for long-horizon MLE tasks and complex agentic problem solving. Notably, Matryoshka Agent enables Qwen3-4B-Instruct to reach Orchestrator performance comparable to o4-mini. Applying Matryoshka Agent to Qwen3-30B-Coder results in at most 36.7% relative performance gain.

Recent agentic search systems have made substantial progress by emphasising deep, multi-step reasoning. However, this focus often overlooks the challenges of wide-scale information synthesis, where agents must aggregate large volumes of heterogeneous evidence across many sources. As a result, most existing large language model agent systems face severe limitations in data-intensive settings, including context saturation, cascading error propagation, and high end-to-end latency. To address these challenges, we present \framework, a hierarchical framework based on principle of near-decomposability, containing a strategic Host, multiple Managers and parallel Workers. By leveraging aggregation and reflection mechanisms at the Manager layer, our framework enforces strict context isolation to prevent saturation and error propagation. Simultaneously, the parallelism in worker layer accelerates the speed of overall task execution, mitigating the significant latency. Our evaluation on two complementary benchmarks demonstrates both efficiency ( 3-5 times speed-up) and effectiveness, achieving a 8.4% success rate on WideSearch-en and 52.9% accuracy on BrowseComp-zh. The code is released at https://github.com/agent-on-the-fly/InfoSeeker

Personalized nutrition intervention for patients with multimorbidity is critical for improving health outcomes, yet remains challenging because it requires the simultaneous integration of heterogeneous clinical conditions, medications, and dietary guidelines. Single-agent large language models (LLMs) often suffer from context overload and attention dilution when processing such high-dimensional patient profiles. We introduce NutriOrion, a hierarchical multi-agent framework with a parallel-then-sequential reasoning topology. NutriOrion decomposes nutrition planning into specialized domain agents with isolated contexts to mitigate anchoring bias, followed by a conditional refinement stage. The framework includes a multi-objective prioritization algorithm to resolve conflicting dietary requirements and a safety constraint mechanism that injects pharmacological contraindications as hard negative constraints during synthesis, ensuring clinical validity by construction rather than post-hoc filtering. For clinical interoperability, NutriOrion maps synthesized insights into the ADIME standard and FHIR R4 resources. Evaluated on 330 stroke patients with multimorbidity, NutriOrion outperforms multiple baselines, including GPT-4.1 and alternative multi-agent architectures. It achieves a 12.1 percent drug-food interaction violation rate, demonstrates strong personalization with negative correlations (-0.26 to -0.35) between patient biomarkers and recommended risk nutrients, and yields clinically meaningful dietary improvements, including a 167 percent increase in fiber and a 27 percent increase in potassium, alongside reductions in sodium (9 percent) and sugars (12 percent).

Hierarchical organization is fundamental to biological systems and human societies, yet artificial intelligence systems often rely on monolithic architectures that limit adaptability and scalability. Current hierarchical reinforcement learning (HRL) approaches typically restrict hierarchies to two levels or require centralized training, which limits their practical applicability. We introduce TAME Agent Framework (TAG), a framework for constructing fully decentralized hierarchical multi-agent systems.TAG enables hierarchies of arbitrary depth through a novel LevelEnv concept, which abstracts each hierarchy level as the environment for the agents above it. This approach standardizes information flow between levels while preserving loose coupling, allowing for seamless integration of diverse agent types. We demonstrate the effectiveness of TAG by implementing hierarchical architectures that combine different RL agents across multiple levels, achieving improved performance over classical multi-agent RL baselines on standard benchmarks. Our results show that decentralized hierarchical organization enhances both learning speed and final performance, positioning TAG as a promising direction for scalable multi-agent systems.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have recently demonstrated impressive action sequence prediction capabilities but often struggle with dynamic, long-horizon tasks such as real-time strategic games. In a game such as StarCraftII (SC2), agents need to manage resource constraints and adapt to evolving battlefield situations in a partially observable environment. This often overwhelms exisiting LLM-based approaches. To address these challenges, we propose a hierarchical multi-agent framework that employs specialized imitation learning agents under a meta-controller called Strategic Planner (SP). By expert demonstrations, each specialized agent learns a distinctive strategy, such as aerial support or defensive maneuvers, and produces coherent, structured multistep action sequences. The SP then orchestrates these proposals into a single, environmentally adaptive plan that ensures local decisions aligning with long-term strategies. We call this HIMA (Hierarchical Imitation Multi-Agent). We also present TEXTSCII-ALL, a comprehensive SC2 testbed that encompasses all race match combinations in SC2. Our empirical results show that HIMA outperforms state of the arts in strategic clarity, adaptability, and computational efficiency, underscoring the potential of combining specialized imitation modules with meta-level orchestration to develop more robust, general-purpose AI agents.

Recent advances in agent systems have demonstrated remarkable capabilities in solving both general-purpose and highly complex tasks. However, most current models lack mechanisms for coordinating specialized agents and have limited ability to generalize to new or diverse domains. To this end, we introduce AgentOrchestra, a hierarchical multi-agent framework for general-purpose task solving that integrates high-level planning with modular agent collaboration. Drawing inspiration from a conductor orchestrating a symphony, and grounded in the principles of extensibility, multimodality, modularity, and coordination, it features a central planning agent that decomposes complex objectives and delegates sub-tasks to a team of specialized agents. Each sub-agent is equipped with general programming tools, as well as abilities to tackle a wide range of real-world specific tasks, including data analysis, file operations, web navigation, and interactive reasoning in dynamic multimodal environments. Notably, AgentOrchestra introduces an MCP Manager Agent that enables intelligent evolution through dynamic tool creation, retrieval, and reuse mechanisms, significantly enhancing the system's adaptability and scalability. AgentOrchestra supports flexible orchestration through explicit sub-goal formulation, inter-agent communication, and adaptive role allocation. We evaluate the framework on three widely used benchmarks for assessing LLM-based agent systems. Experimental results show that AgentOrchestra consistently outperforms flat-agent and monolithic baselines in terms of task success rate and adaptability. On the GAIA benchmark testing dataset, AgentOrchestra achieves an average score of 83.39\%, ranking among the top general-purpose agents. These results highlight the effectiveness of hierarchical organization and role specialization in building scalable and general-purpose LLM-based agent systems.

High-dimensional decision-making tasks, such as business partner selection, involve evaluating large candidate pools with heterogeneous numerical, categorical, and textual features. While large language models (LLMs) offer strong in-context reasoning capabilities, single-agent or debate-style systems often struggle with scalability and consistency in such settings. We propose PartnerMAS, a hierarchical multi-agent framework that decomposes evaluation into three layers: a Planner Agent that designs strategies, Specialized Agents that perform role-specific assessments, and a Supervisor Agent that integrates their outputs. To support systematic evaluation, we also introduce a curated benchmark dataset of venture capital co-investments, featuring diverse firm attributes and ground-truth syndicates. Across 140 cases, PartnerMAS consistently outperforms single-agent and debate-based multi-agent baselines, achieving up to 10--15\% higher match rates. Analysis of agent reasoning shows that planners are most responsive to domain-informed prompts, specialists produce complementary feature coverage, and supervisors play an important role in aggregation. Our findings demonstrate that structured collaboration among LLM agents can generate more robust outcomes than scaling individual models, highlighting PartnerMAS as a promising framework for high-dimensional decision-making in data-rich domains.

Integrating Large Language Models (LLMs) in healthcare diagnosis demands systematic frameworks that can handle complex medical scenarios while maintaining specialized expertise. We present KG4Diagnosis, a novel hierarchical multi-agent framework that combines LLMs with automated knowledge graph construction, encompassing 362 common diseases across medical specialties. Our framework mirrors real-world medical systems through a two-tier architecture: a general practitioner (GP) agent for initial assessment and triage, coordinating with specialized agents for in-depth diagnosis in specific domains. The core innovation lies in our end-to-end knowledge graph generation methodology, incorporating: (1) semantic-driven entity and relation extraction optimized for medical terminology, (2) multi-dimensional decision relationship reconstruction from unstructured medical texts, and (3) human-guided reasoning for knowledge expansion. KG4Diagnosis serves as an extensible foundation for specialized medical diagnosis systems, with capabilities to incorporate new diseases and medical knowledge. The framework's modular design enables seamless integration of domain-specific enhancements, making it valuable for developing targeted medical diagnosis systems. We provide architectural guidelines and protocols to facilitate adoption across medical contexts.

Sequential LLM agents fail on long-horizon planning with hard constraints like budgets and diversity requirements. As planning progresses and context grows, these agents drift from global constraints. We propose HiMAP-Travel, a hierarchical multi-agent framework that splits planning into strategic coordination and parallel day-level execution. A Coordinator allocates resources across days, while Day Executors plan independently in parallel. Three key mechanisms enable this: a transactional monitor enforcing budget and uniqueness constraints across parallel agents, a bargaining protocol allowing agents to reject infeasible sub-goals and trigger re-planning, and a single policy trained with GRPO that powers all agents through role conditioning. On TravelPlanner, HiMAP-Travel with Qwen3-8B achieves 52.78% validation and 52.65% test Final Pass Rate (FPR). In a controlled comparison with identical model, training, and tools, it outperforms the sequential DeepTravel baseline by +8.67~pp. It also surpasses ATLAS by +17.65~pp and MTP by +10.0~pp. On FlexTravelBench multi-turn scenarios, it achieves 44.34% (2-turn) and 37.42% (3-turn) FPR while reducing latency 2.5x through parallelization.

Instruction-based image editing has emerged as a key capability for unified multimodal models (UMMs), yet constructing large-scale, diverse, and high-quality editing datasets without costly proprietary APIs remains challenging. Previous image editing datasets either rely on closed-source models for annotation, which prevents cost-effective scaling, or employ fixed synthetic editing pipelines, which suffer from limited quality and generalizability. To address these challenges, we propose ScaleEditor, a fully open-source hierarchical multi-agent framework for end-to-end construction of large-scale, high-quality image editing datasets. Our pipeline consists of three key components: source image expansion with world-knowledge infusion, adaptive multi-agent editing instruction-image synthesis, and a task-aware data quality verification mechanism. Using ScaleEditor, we curate ScaleEdit-12M, the largest open-source image editing dataset to date, spanning 23 task families across diverse real and synthetic domains. Fine-tuning UniWorld-V1 and Bagel on ScaleEdit yields consistent gains, improving performance by up to 10.4% on ImgEdit and 35.1% on GEdit for general editing benchmarks and by up to 150.0% on RISE and 26.5% on KRIS-Bench for knowledge-infused benchmarks. These results demonstrate that open-source, agentic pipelines can approach commercial-grade data quality while retaining cost-effectiveness and scalability. Both the framework and dataset will be open-sourced.

Large Language Models (LLMs) have achieved strong performance on a wide range of complex reasoning tasks, yet further gains are often possible by leveraging the complementary strengths of multiple models. While multi-agent frameworks can improve solution quality by leveraging multiple LLMs, existing methods are often computationally expensive, both at training and inference time. In this work, we introduce a hierarchical multi-agent framework that addresses these challenges by training only a single leader LLM to coordinate a team of untrained peer agents. To this end, we propose Multi-agent guided Leader Policy Optimization (MLPO), a novel approach which trains the leader to evaluate and synthesize agent responses without auxiliary value networks or explicit agent feedback. Leaders trained with MLPO exhibit improved performance not only when interacting with the agent team at inference time, but also enjoy improved performance when deployed in single-agent settings without the team. Empirical results on Big-Bench Hard (BBH), MATH, and MMLU demonstrate that our framework achieves substantial performance improvements over both single-agent and multi-agent baselines. Our results highlight the effectiveness and efficiency of training a single, flexible leader for collaborative reasoning in multi-agent LLM systems.

The rapid growth of scientific literature demands robust tools for automated survey-generation. However, current large language model (LLM)-based methods often lack in-depth analysis, structural coherence, and reliable citations. To address these limitations, we introduce SciSage, a multi-agent framework employing a reflect-when-you-write paradigm. SciSage features a hierarchical Reflector agent that critically evaluates drafts at outline, section, and document levels, collaborating with specialized agents for query interpretation, content retrieval, and refinement. We also release SurveyScope, a rigorously curated benchmark of 46 high-impact papers (2020-2025) across 11 computer science domains, with strict recency and citation-based quality controls. Evaluations demonstrate that SciSage outperforms state-of-the-art baselines (LLM x MapReduce-V2, AutoSurvey), achieving +1.73 points in document coherence and +32% in citation F1 scores. Human evaluations reveal mixed outcomes (3 wins vs. 7 losses against human-written surveys), but highlight SciSage's strengths in topical breadth and retrieval efficiency. Overall, SciSage offers a promising foundation for research-assistive writing tools.

Multi-agent systems based on large language models, particularly centralized architectures, have recently shown strong potential for complex and knowledge-intensive tasks. However, central agents often suffer from unstable long-horizon collaboration due to the lack of memory management, leading to context bloat, error accumulation, and poor cross-task generalization. To address both task-level memory inefficiency and the inability to reuse coordination experience, we propose StackPlanner, a hierarchical multi-agent framework with explicit memory control. StackPlanner addresses these challenges by decoupling high-level coordination from subtask execution with active task-level memory control, and by learning to retrieve and exploit reusable coordination experience via structured experience memory and reinforcement learning. Experiments on multiple deep-search and agent system benchmarks demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach in enabling reliable long-horizon multi-agent collaboration.

Effective personalized AI-assisted learning demands systems that can not only generate accurate learner-specific educational materials, but also dynamically adapt their instruction to diverse learners. However, existing educational agents have primarily focused on lecture content automation and simulations, which often fall short of modelling multimodal and embodied instructional methods tailored for the individual learner. To this end, we propose LectūraAgents - a multi-agent framework that enables personalized learning through end-to-end adaptive embodied teaching. At its core, LectūraAgents mirrors a professor-student relationship, in which a ProfessorAgent leads a collaborative team of specialized subordinate agents through research, planning, review, and embodied delivery of lecture contents that adapt to a learner's needs. The framework offers three main contributions: (1) a hierarchical multi-agent architecture for end-to-end personalized learning; (2) an adaptive embodied teaching mechanism, wherein the ProfessorAgent executes visible and pedagogically motivated teaching actions (e.g., handwrite, highlight, underline, etc.) over contents in a teaching environment; and (3) a Teaching Action-Speech Alignment (TASA) algorithm that employs salience-based heuristics and temporal semantic segmentation to generate coherent teaching action sequences aligned with learner profiles. We evaluate LectūraAgents on diverse courses at high school, undergraduate, and graduate levels using sample-specific rubric-based analysis; with generated lecture materials and teaching actions assessed and validated by expert educators. Experimental results show consistent gains in lecture content quality, embodied teaching quality, assessment, and personalization over existing approaches, positioning LectūraAgents as a pedagogically well-grounded framework for personalized learning at scale.

Video mashup creation represents a complex video editing paradigm that recomposes existing footage to craft engaging audio-visual experiences, demanding intricate orchestration across semantic, visual, and auditory dimensions and multiple levels. However, existing automated editing frameworks often overlook the cross-level multimodal orchestration to achieve professional-grade fluidity, resulting in disjointed sequences with abrupt visual transitions and musical misalignment. To address this, we formulate video mashup creation as a Multimodal Coherency Satisfaction Problem (MMCSP) and propose the DIRECT framework. Simulating a professional production pipeline, our hierarchical multi-agent framework decomposes the challenge into three cascade levels: the Screenwriter for source-aware global structural anchoring, the Director for instantiating adaptive editing intent and guidance, and the Editor for intent-guided shot sequence editing with fine-grained optimization. We further introduce Mashup-Bench, a comprehensive benchmark with tailored metrics for visual continuity and auditory alignment. Extensive experiments demonstrate that DIRECT significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines in both objective metrics and human subjective evaluation. Project page and code: https://github.com/AK-DREAM/DIRECT

Smartphones have become indispensable in modern life, yet navigating complex tasks on mobile devices often remains frustrating. Recent advancements in large multimodal model (LMM)-based mobile agents have demonstrated the ability to perceive and act in mobile environments. However, current approaches face significant limitations: they fall short in addressing real-world human needs, struggle with reasoning-intensive and long-horizon tasks, and lack mechanisms to learn and improve from prior experiences. To overcome these challenges, we introduce Mobile-Agent-E, a hierarchical multi-agent framework capable of self-evolution through past experience. By hierarchical, we mean an explicit separation of high-level planning and low-level action execution. The framework comprises a Manager, responsible for devising overall plans by breaking down complex tasks into subgoals, and four subordinate agents--Perceptor, Operator, Action Reflector, and Notetaker--which handle fine-grained visual perception, immediate action execution, error verification, and information aggregation, respectively. Mobile-Agent-E also features a novel self-evolution module which maintains a persistent long-term memory comprising Tips and Shortcuts. Tips are general guidance and lessons learned from prior tasks on how to effectively interact with the environment. Shortcuts are reusable, executable sequences of atomic operations tailored for specific subroutines. The inclusion of Tips and Shortcuts facilitates continuous refinement in performance and efficiency. Alongside this framework, we introduce Mobile-Eval-E, a new benchmark featuring complex mobile tasks requiring long-horizon, multi-app interactions. Empirical results show that Mobile-Agent-E achieves a 22% absolute improvement over previous state-of-the-art approaches across three foundation model backbones. Project page: https://x-plug.github.io/MobileAgent.

Existing approaches for digital short-drama production typically rely on one-shot LLM generated scripts and loosely coupled pipelines, which fail to satisfy three key requirements of short-drama generation: (1) narrative pacing, resulting in weak hooks, insufficient escalation, and unattractive endings; (2) spatial consistency, leading to drifting scene layouts and inconsistent character positions across clips; and (3) production-level quality control, requiring extensive manual review and correction across script and visual stages. We present One Sentence, One Drama, a hierarchical multi-agent framework that transforms a user's single-sentence idea into a fully produced short drama through structured intermediate modules and iterative refinement. Our approach is built upon three key components: (1) a multi-agent debate-based story generation module that enforces short-drama pacing and narrative coherence; (2) a 3D-grounded first-frame generation mechanism that establishes a shared spatial reference for consistent character positioning and scene layout across clips; and (3) multi-stage reviewer loops that perform comprehensive error detection and targeted revision across script, visual, and video generation stages. We also introduce scene-level BGM matching and scene transition planning to improve the audience's immersive experience. To systematically evaluate this task, we introduce Short-Drama-Bench, a benchmark that extends standard video quality metrics with short-drama-specific criteria. Experimental results demonstrate that our method significantly outperforms existing pipelines in narrative quality, cross-clip consistency, and overall viewing experience.

Long-horizon tasks that require sustained reasoning and multiple tool interactions remain challenging for LLM agents: small errors compound across steps, and even state-of-the-art models often hallucinate or lose coherence. We identify context management as the central bottleneck -- extended histories cause agents to overlook critical evidence or become distracted by irrelevant information, thus failing to replan or reflect from previous mistakes. To address this, we propose COMPASS (Context-Organized Multi-Agent Planning and Strategy System), a lightweight hierarchical framework that separates tactical execution, strategic oversight, and context organization into three specialized components: (1) a Main Agent that performs reasoning and tool use, (2) a Meta-Thinker that monitors progress and issues strategic interventions, and (3) a Context Manager that maintains concise, relevant progress briefs for different reasoning stages. Across three challenging benchmarks -- GAIA, BrowseComp, and Humanity's Last Exam -- COMPASS improves accuracy by up to 20% relative to both single- and multi-agent baselines. We further introduce a test-time scaling extension that elevates performance to match established DeepResearch agents, and a post-training pipeline that delegates context management to smaller models for enhanced efficiency.

While large language model-based multi-agent systems have shown strong potential for complex reasoning, how to effectively organize multiple agents remains an open question. In this paper, we introduce OrgAgent, a company-style hierarchical multi-agent framework that separates collaboration into governance, execution, and compliance layers. OrgAgent decomposes multi-agent reasoning into three layers: a governance layer for planning and resource allocation, an execution layer for task solving and review, and a compliance layer for final answer control. By evaluating the framework across reasoning tasks, LLMs, execution modes, and execution policies, we find that multi-agent systems organized in a company-style hierarchy generally outperform other organizational structures. Besides, hierarchical coordination also reduces token consumption relative to flat collaboration in most settings. For example, for GPT-OSS-120B, the hierarchical setting improves performance over flat multi-agent system by 102.73% while reducing token usage by 74.52% on SQuAD 2.0. Further analysis shows that hierarchy helps most when tasks benefit from stable skill assignment, controlled information flow, and layered verification. Overall, our findings highlight organizational structure as an important factor in multi-agent reasoning, shaping not only effectiveness and cost, but also coordination behavior.

Answering complex, real-world queries often requires synthesizing facts scattered across vast document corpora. In these settings, standard retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) pipelines suffer from incomplete evidence coverage, while long-context large language models (LLMs) struggle to reason reliably over massive inputs. We introduce SPD-RAG, a hierarchical multi-agent framework for exhaustive cross-document question answering that decomposes the problem along the document axis. Each document is processed by a dedicated document-level agent operating only on its own content, enabling focused retrieval, while a coordinator dispatches tasks to relevant agents and aggregates their partial answers. Agent outputs are synthesized by merging partial answers through a token-bounded synthesis layer (which supports recursive map-reduce for massive corpora). This document-level specialization with centralized fusion improves scalability and answer quality in heterogeneous multidocument settings while yielding a modular, extensible retrieval pipeline. On the LOONG benchmark (EMNLP 2024) for long-context multi-document QA, SPD-RAG achieves an Avg Score of 58.1 (GPT-5 evaluation), outperforming Normal RAG (33.0) and Agentic RAG (32.8) while using only 38% of the API cost of a full-context baseline (68.0).

Large Language Model (LLM)-based multi-agent systems show promise for automating real-world tasks but struggle to transfer across domains due to their domain-specific nature. Current approaches face two critical shortcomings: they require complete architectural redesign and full retraining of all components when applied to new domains. We introduce Workforce, a hierarchical multi-agent framework that decouples strategic planning from specialized execution through a modular architecture comprising: (i) a domain-agnostic Planner for task decomposition, (ii) a Coordinator for subtask management, and (iii) specialized Workers with domain-specific tool-calling capabilities. This decoupling enables cross-domain transferability during both inference and training phases: During inference, Workforce seamlessly adapts to new domains by adding or modifying worker agents; For training, we introduce Optimized Workforce Learning (OWL), which improves generalization across domains by optimizing a domain-agnostic planner with reinforcement learning from real-world feedback. To validate our approach, we evaluate Workforce on the GAIA benchmark, covering various realistic, multi-domain agentic tasks. Experimental results demonstrate Workforce achieves open-source state-of-the-art performance (69.70%), outperforming commercial systems like OpenAI's Deep Research by 2.34%. More notably, our OWL-trained 32B model achieves 52.73% accuracy (+16.37%) and demonstrates performance comparable to GPT-4o on challenging tasks. To summarize, by enabling scalable generalization and modular domain transfer, our work establishes a foundation for the next generation of general-purpose AI assistants.

Olympiad-level benchmarks in mathematics and physics are crucial testbeds for advanced AI reasoning, but chemistry, with its unique multimodal symbolic language, has remained an open challenge. We introduce ChemO, a new benchmark built from the International Chemistry Olympiad (IChO) 2025. ChemO features two key innovations for automated assessment: Assessment-Equivalent Reformulation (AER), which converts problems requiring visual outputs (e.g., drawing molecules) into computationally tractable formats, and Structured Visual Enhancement (SVE), a diagnostic mechanism to disentangle a model's visual perception capabilities from its core chemical reasoning. To tackle this benchmark, we propose ChemLabs, a hierarchical multi-agent framework that mimics human expert collaboration through specialized agents for problem decomposition, perception, reasoning, and auditing. Experiments on state-of-the-art multimodal models demonstrate that combining SVE with our multi-agent system yields dramatic performance gains. Our top configuration achieves a score of 93.6 out of 100, surpassing an estimated human gold medal threshold and establishing a new state-of-the-art in automated chemical problem-solving. ChemO Dataset: https://huggingface.co/datasets/IDEA-AI4SCI/ChemO

While diffusion models generate high-fidelity video clips, transforming them into coherent storytelling engines remains challenging. Current agentic pipelines automate this via chained modules but suffer from semantic drift and cascading failures due to independent, handcrafted prompting. We present Co-Director, a hierarchical multi-agent framework formalizing video storytelling as a global optimization problem. To ensure semantic coherence, we introduce hierarchical parameterization: a multi-armed bandit globally identifies promising creative directions, while a local multimodal self-refinement loop mitigates identity drift and ensures sequence-level consistency. This balances the exploration of novel narrative strategies with the exploitation of effective creative configurations. For evaluation, we introduce GenAD-Bench, a 400-scenario dataset of fictional products for personalized advertising. Experiments demonstrate that Co-Director significantly outperforms state-of-the-art baselines, offering a principled approach that seamlessly generalizes to broader cinematic narratives. Project Page: https://co-director-agent.github.io/

We introduce ComfyUI-Copilot, a large language model-powered plugin designed to enhance the usability and efficiency of ComfyUI, an open-source platform for AI-driven art creation. Despite its flexibility and user-friendly interface, ComfyUI can present challenges to newcomers, including limited documentation, model misconfigurations, and the complexity of workflow design. ComfyUI-Copilot addresses these challenges by offering intelligent node and model recommendations, along with automated one-click workflow construction. At its core, the system employs a hierarchical multi-agent framework comprising a central assistant agent for task delegation and specialized worker agents for different usages, supported by our curated ComfyUI knowledge bases to streamline debugging and deployment. We validate the effectiveness of ComfyUI-Copilot through both offline quantitative evaluations and online user feedback, showing that it accurately recommends nodes and accelerates workflow development. Additionally, use cases illustrate that ComfyUI-Copilot lowers entry barriers for beginners and enhances workflow efficiency for experienced users. The ComfyUI-Copilot installation package and a demo video are available at https://github.com/AIDC-AI/ComfyUI-Copilot.

Deep Research Agents have shown strong capability in multi-step information retrieval, reasoning, and long-form report generation, but existing benchmarks and systems remain predominantly text-centric, with limited evaluation of whether visual elements are factually reliable and well aligned with the surrounding analysis. To address this gap, we introduce TVIR (Text--Visual Interleaved Report Generation), which includes TVIR-Bench, a benchmark of 100 expert-curated multimodal deep research tasks that require visual elements to serve specific analytical sub-goals, and TVIR-Agent, a hierarchical multi-agent framework that serves as a strong baseline for constructing outlines, retrieving images, generating charts with traceable sources, and composing reports through context-aware sequential writing. We further develop a dual-path evaluation framework that combines Textual Assessment and Visual Assessment. Experiments across nine deep research systems show that TVIR-Agent achieves strong overall performance, underscoring the importance of explicit multimodal design and evaluation for evidence-driven report generation.

Personalized presentation generation requires more than conditioning on a current prompt or template: agents must preserve stable user preferences across tasks, retain newly introduced preferences and constraints during multi-turn revision, and carry out local edits reliably. We propose MemSlides, a hierarchical memory framework for personalized presentation agents that separates long-term memory from working memory and further divides long-term memory into user profile memory and tool memory. User profile memory stores intent-conditioned profiles for round-0 personalization, working memory carries active preferences and session constraints across revision rounds, and tool memory stores reusable execution experience for reliable localized editing. MemSlides pairs this memory design with scoped slide-local revision, so targeted updates act on the smallest affected region instead of repeatedly regenerating the full deck. In controlled experiments, user profile memory improves persona-alignment judgments on a multi-persona, multi-intent profile bank, tool-memory injection improves closed-loop modify behavior in diagnostic matched-pair settings, and qualitative cases illustrate working memory's ability to carryover preferences. Taken together, these results suggest that effective personalization in presentation authoring depends on separating persistent user profiles, session-level working memory, and reusable execution experience across generation and localized revision.

While Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) augments Large Language Models (LLMs) with external knowledge, conventional single-agent RAG remains fundamentally limited in resolving complex queries demanding coordinated reasoning across heterogeneous data ecosystems. We present HM-RAG, a novel Hierarchical Multi-agent Multimodal RAG framework that pioneers collaborative intelligence for dynamic knowledge synthesis across structured, unstructured, and graph-based data. The framework is composed of three-tiered architecture with specialized agents: a Decomposition Agent that dissects complex queries into contextually coherent sub-tasks via semantic-aware query rewriting and schema-guided context augmentation; Multi-source Retrieval Agents that carry out parallel, modality-specific retrieval using plug-and-play modules designed for vector, graph, and web-based databases; and a Decision Agent that uses consistency voting to integrate multi-source answers and resolve discrepancies in retrieval results through Expert Model Refinement. This architecture attains comprehensive query understanding by combining textual, graph-relational, and web-derived evidence, resulting in a remarkable 12.95% improvement in answer accuracy and a 3.56% boost in question classification accuracy over baseline RAG systems on the ScienceQA and CrisisMMD benchmarks. Notably, HM-RAG establishes state-of-the-art results in zero-shot settings on both datasets. Its modular architecture ensures seamless integration of new data modalities while maintaining strict data governance, marking a significant advancement in addressing the critical challenges of multimodal reasoning and knowledge synthesis in RAG systems. Code is available at https://github.com/ocean-luna/HMRAG.

Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly adopted for automating survey paper generation wang2406autosurvey, liang2025surveyx, yan2025surveyforge,su2025benchmarking,wen2025interactivesurvey. Existing approaches typically extract content from a large collection of related papers and prompt LLMs to summarize them directly. However, such methods often overlook the structural relationships among papers, resulting in generated surveys that lack a coherent taxonomy and a deeper contextual understanding of research progress. To address these shortcomings, we propose SurveyG, an LLM-based agent framework that integrates hierarchical citation graph, where nodes denote research papers and edges capture both citation dependencies and semantic relatedness between their contents, thereby embedding structural and contextual knowledge into the survey generation process. The graph is organized into three layers: Foundation, Development, and Frontier, to capture the evolution of research from seminal works to incremental advances and emerging directions. By combining horizontal search within layers and vertical depth traversal across layers, the agent produces multi-level summaries, which are consolidated into a structured survey outline. A multi-agent validation stage then ensures consistency, coverage, and factual accuracy in generating the final survey. Experiments, including evaluations by human experts and LLM-as-a-judge, demonstrate that SurveyG outperforms state-of-the-art frameworks, producing surveys that are more comprehensive and better structured to the underlying knowledge taxonomy of a field.

Recent advancements in Multi-Agent Systems (MAS) powered by Large Language Models (LLMs) have demonstrated tremendous potential in diverse task scenarios. Nonetheless, existing agentic systems typically rely on predefined agent-role design spaces and static communication structures, limiting their adaptability as well as flexibility in complex interaction environments and leading to subpar performance on highly specialized and expert-level tasks. To address these issues, we introduce HALO, a multi-agent collaboration framework based on a hierarchical reasoning architecture. Specifically, we incorporate a high-level planning agent for task decomposition, mid-level role-design agents for subtask-specific agent instantiation, and low-level inference agents for subtask execution. Particularly, subtask execution is reformulated as a structured workflow search problem, where Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) systematically explores the agentic action space to construct optimal reasoning trajectories. Additionally, as the majority of users lack expertise in prompt engineering, we leverage an Adaptive Prompt Refinement module to transform raw queries into task-specific prompts. Empirical evaluations on Code Generation (HumanEval), General Reasoning (MMLU), and Arithmetic Reasoning (MATH) benchmark datasets highlight the effectiveness of HALO, yielding a 14.4% average improvement over state-of-the-art baselines. Notably, HALO achieves up to 13.3% performance gain on the Moral Scenarios subject in the MMLU benchmark and up to 19.6% performance gain on the Algebra subarea in the MATH benchmark, indicating its advanced proficiency in tackling highly specialized and expert-level tasks. The code repository is available at https://github.com/23japhone/HALO.

Large Language Model (LLM) agents trained with reinforcement learning (RL) show great promise for solving complex, multi-step tasks. However, their performance is often crippled by "Context Explosion", where the accumulation of long text outputs overwhelms the model's context window and leads to reasoning failures. To address this, we introduce CoDA, a Context-Decoupled hierarchical Agent, a simple but effective reinforcement learning framework that decouples high-level planning from low-level execution. It employs a single, shared LLM backbone that learns to operate in two distinct, contextually isolated roles: a high-level Planner that decomposes tasks within a concise strategic context, and a low-level Executor that handles tool interactions in an ephemeral, isolated workspace. We train this unified agent end-to-end using PECO (Planner-Executor Co-Optimization), a reinforcement learning methodology that applies a trajectory-level reward to jointly optimize both roles, fostering seamless collaboration through context-dependent policy updates. Extensive experiments demonstrate that CoDA achieves significant performance improvements over state-of-the-art baselines on complex multi-hop question-answering benchmarks, and it exhibits strong robustness in long-context scenarios, maintaining stable performance while all other baselines suffer severe degradation, thus further validating the effectiveness of our hierarchical design in mitigating context overload.

Achieving mission objectives in a realistic simulation of aerial combat is highly challenging due to imperfect situational awareness and nonlinear flight dynamics. In this work, we introduce a novel 3D multi-agent air combat environment and a Hierarchical Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning framework to tackle these challenges. Our approach combines heterogeneous agent dynamics, curriculum learning, league-play, and a newly adapted training algorithm. To this end, the decision-making process is organized into two abstraction levels: low-level policies learn precise control maneuvers, while high-level policies issue tactical commands based on mission objectives. Empirical results show that our hierarchical approach improves both learning efficiency and combat performance in complex dogfight scenarios.

Rapid Large Language Model (LLM) advancements are fueling autonomous Multi-Agent System (MAS) development. However, current frameworks often lack flexibility, resource awareness, model diversity, and autonomous tool creation. This paper introduces HASHIRU (Hierarchical Agent System for Hybrid Intelligent Resource Utilization), a novel MAS framework enhancing flexibility, resource efficiency, and adaptability. HASHIRU features a "CEO" agent dynamically managing specialized "employee" agents, instantiated based on task needs and resource constraints (cost, memory). Its hybrid intelligence prioritizes smaller, local LLMs (via Ollama) while flexibly using external APIs and larger models when necessary. An economic model with hiring/firing costs promotes team stability and efficient resource allocation. The system also includes autonomous API tool creation and a memory function. Evaluations on tasks like academic paper review (58% success), safety assessments (100% on a JailbreakBench subset), and complex reasoning (outperforming Gemini 2.0 Flash on GSM8K: 96% vs. 61%; JEEBench: 80% vs. 68.3%; SVAMP: 92% vs. 84%) demonstrate HASHIRU's capabilities. Case studies illustrate its self-improvement via autonomous cost model generation, tool integration, and budget management. HASHIRU offers a promising approach for more robust, efficient, and adaptable MAS through dynamic hierarchical control, resource-aware hybrid intelligence, and autonomous functional extension. Source code and benchmarks are available at https://github.com/HASHIRU-AI/HASHIRU and https://github.com/HASHIRU-AI/HASHIRUBench respectively, and a live demo is available at https://hashiruagentx-hashiruai.hf.space upon request.

Modern scientific research relies on large-scale data, complex workflows, and specialized tools, which existing LLMs and tool-based agents struggle to handle due to limitations in long-horizon planning, robust goal maintenance, and continual learning from execution. To address these issues, in this work, we propose S1-NexusAgent, a self-evolving agent framework designed for multidisciplinary scientific research. S1-NexusAgent adopts a hierarchical Plan-and-CodeAct execution paradigm, decoupling global scientific planning from subtask-level tool execution through a dual-loop architecture, thereby enabling stable modeling of complex research workflows. The system natively supports the Model Context Protocol (MCP), integrates up to thousands of cross-disciplinary scientific tools, and achieves efficient orchestration of heterogeneous research tools via intention-aware dynamic tool retrieval and hot-plug mechanisms. To address long-context and large-scale data challenges in scientific settings, S1-NexusAgent introduces object-reference-based sparse context management, which enables sub-task context isolation and intermediate result compression. Building on this, a Critic Agent automatically evaluates complete execution trajectories and distills high-quality research paths into reusable Scientific Skills, forming a closed loop for continuous self-evolution, which is valuable for sustainable and long-horizon scientific research. Experiments on authoritative scientific benchmarks involving long-horizon planning and complex specialized tool orchestration, including biomini-eval (biology), ChemBench (chemistry), and MatSciBench (material science), demonstrate that S1-NexusAgent achieves state-of-the-art performance, validating its effectiveness and generalization capability in complex scientific tasks.

Traditional video retrieval benchmarks focus on matching precise descriptions to closed video pools, failing to reflect real-world searches characterized by fuzzy, multi-dimensional memories on the open web. We present RVMS-Bench, a comprehensive system for evaluating real-world video memory search. It consists of 1,440 samples spanning 20 diverse categories and four duration groups, sourced from real-world open-web videos. RVMS-Bench utilizes a hierarchical description framework encompassing Global Impression, Key Moment, Temporal Context, and Auditory Memory to mimic realistic multi-dimensional search cues, with all samples strictly verified via a human-in-the-loop protocol. We further propose RACLO, an agentic framework that employs abductive reasoning to simulate the human ``Recall-Search-Verify'' cognitive process, effectively addressing the challenge of searching for videos via fuzzy memories in the real world. Experiments reveal that existing MLLMs still demonstrate insufficient capabilities in real-world Video Retrieval and Moment Localization based on fuzzy memories. We believe this work will facilitate the advancement of video retrieval robustness in real-world unstructured scenarios.

Contemporary approaches to agent-based modeling (ABM) of social systems have traditionally emphasized rule-based behaviors, limiting their ability to capture nuanced dynamics by moving beyond predefined rules and leveraging contextual understanding from LMs of human social interaction. This paper presents SALM (Social Agent LM Framework), a novel approach for integrating language models (LMs) into social network simulation that achieves unprecedented temporal stability in multi-agent scenarios. Our primary contributions include: (1) a hierarchical prompting architecture enabling stable simulation beyond 4,000 timesteps while reducing token usage by 73%, (2) an attention-based memory system achieving 80% cache hit rates (95% CI [78%, 82%]) with sub-linear memory growth of 9.5%, and (3) formal bounds on personality stability. Through extensive validation against SNAP ego networks, we demonstrate the first LLM-based framework capable of modeling long-term social phenomena while maintaining empirically validated behavioral fidelity.

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is an essential simulation tool in engineering, yet its steep learning curve and complex manual setup create significant barriers. To address these challenges, we introduce Foam-Agent, a multi-agent framework that automates the entire end-to-end OpenFOAM workflow from a single natural language prompt. Our key innovations address critical gaps in existing systems: 1. An Comprehensive End-to-End Simulation Automation: Foam-Agent is the first system to manage the full simulation pipeline, including advanced pre-processing with a versatile Meshing Agent capable of handling external mesh files and generating new geometries via Gmsh, automatic generation of HPC submission scripts, and post-simulation visualization via ParaView. 2. Composable Service Architecture: Going beyond a monolithic agent, the framework uses Model Context Protocol (MCP) to expose its core functions as discrete, callable tools. This allows for flexible integration and use by other agentic systems, such as Claude-code, for more exploratory workflows. 3. High-Fidelity Configuration Generation: We achieve superior accuracy through a Hierarchical Multi-Index RAG for precise context retrieval and a dependency-aware generation process that ensures configuration consistency. Evaluated on a benchmark of 110 simulation tasks, Foam-Agent achieves an 88.2% success rate with Claude 3.5 Sonnet, significantly outperforming existing frameworks (55.5% for MetaOpenFOAM). Foam-Agent dramatically lowers the expertise barrier for CFD, demonstrating how specialized multi-agent systems can democratize complex scientific computing. The code is public at https://github.com/csml-rpi/Foam-Agent.

Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data analysis is crucial for biological research, as it enables the precise characterization of cellular heterogeneity. However, manual manipulation of various tools to achieve desired outcomes can be labor-intensive for researchers. To address this, we introduce CellAgent (http://cell.agent4science.cn/), an LLM-driven multi-agent framework, specifically designed for the automatic processing and execution of scRNA-seq data analysis tasks, providing high-quality results with no human intervention. Firstly, to adapt general LLMs to the biological field, CellAgent constructs LLM-driven biological expert roles - planner, executor, and evaluator - each with specific responsibilities. Then, CellAgent introduces a hierarchical decision-making mechanism to coordinate these biological experts, effectively driving the planning and step-by-step execution of complex data analysis tasks. Furthermore, we propose a self-iterative optimization mechanism, enabling CellAgent to autonomously evaluate and optimize solutions, thereby guaranteeing output quality. We evaluate CellAgent on a comprehensive benchmark dataset encompassing dozens of tissues and hundreds of distinct cell types. Evaluation results consistently show that CellAgent effectively identifies the most suitable tools and hyperparameters for single-cell analysis tasks, achieving optimal performance. This automated framework dramatically reduces the workload for science data analyses, bringing us into the "Agent for Science" era.

Cutscenes are carefully choreographed cinematic sequences embedded in video games and interactive media, serving as the primary vehicle for narrative delivery, character development, and emotional engagement. Producing cutscenes is inherently complex: it demands seamless coordination across screenwriting, cinematography, character animation, voice acting, and technical direction, often requiring days to weeks of collaborative effort from multidisciplinary teams to produce minutes of polished content. In this work, we present Cutscene Agent, an LLM agent framework for automated end-to-end cutscene generation. The framework makes three contributions: (1)~a Cutscene Toolkit built on the Model Context Protocol (MCP) that establishes bidirectional integration between LLM agents and the game engine -- agents not only invoke engine operations but continuously observe real-time scene state, enabling closed-loop generation of editable engine-native cinematic assets; (2)~a multi-agent system where a director agent orchestrates specialist subagents for animation, cinematography, and sound design, augmented by a visual reasoning feedback loop for perception-driven refinement; and (3)~CutsceneBench, a hierarchical evaluation benchmark for cutscene generation. Unlike typical tool-use benchmarks that evaluate short, isolated function calls, cutscene generation requires long-horizon, multi-step orchestration of dozens of interdependent tool invocations with strict ordering constraints -- a capability dimension that existing benchmarks do not cover. We evaluate a range of LLMs on CutsceneBench and analyze their performance across this challenging task.

Large language models (LLMs) demonstrate remarkable reasoning capabilities, yet their stateless architecture fundamentally limits deployment in long-horizon research workflows requiring multi-session continuity and quantitative rigor. Here we present Ensemble QSP, a multi-agent framework featuring a three-layer hierarchical memory architecture that keeps injected context bounded and constant in project duration (mid-term project state: median 301 tokens, max 4,050, across 104 runs) by capping each state category and evicting completed work, enabling continuous autonomous operation without context degradation. The system orchestrates five specialist worker agents under domain-expert principal investigators, enforcing physical constraints through physics-based checklists and structured-domain knowledge. Comprehensive benchmarking demonstrates robust autonomous pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model selection without human intervention, consistent result quality across both lower-cost and frontier LLMs, improved PK parameter recovery relative to single-agent baselines, and stable model selection across linguistically diverse prompts of the same task. Feature-level ablation across physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models spanning a broad complexity range shows that PI-agent oversight improves debugging efficiency while preserving final accuracy across conditions. The architecture is structurally domain-agnostic, adding a new scientific domain requires only a new PI agent configuration.

Current agentic frameworks underperform on long-horizon tasks. As reasoning depth increases, sequential orchestration becomes brittle, context windows impose hard limits that degrade performance, and opaque execution traces make failures difficult to localize or debug. We introduce ROMA (Recursive Open Meta-Agents), a domain-agnostic framework that addresses these limitations through recursive task decomposition and structured aggregation. ROMA decomposes goals into dependency-aware subtask trees that can be executed in parallel, while aggregation compresses and validates intermediate results to control context growth. Our framework standardizes agent construction around four modular roles --Atomizer (which decides whether a task should be decomposed), Planner, Executor, and Aggregator -- which cleanly separate orchestration from model selection and enable transparent, hierarchical execution traces. This design supports heterogeneous multi-agent systems that mix models and tools according to cost, latency, and capability. To adapt ROMA to specific tasks without fine-tuning, we further introduce GEPA+, an improved Genetic-Pareto prompt proposer that searches over prompts within ROMA's component hierarchy while preserving interface contracts. We show that ROMA, combined with GEPA+, delivers leading system-level performance on reasoning and long-form generation benchmarks. On SEAL-0, which evaluates reasoning over conflicting web evidence, ROMA instantiated with GLM-4.6 improves accuracy by 9.9\% over Kimi-Researcher. On EQ-Bench, a long-form writing benchmark, ROMA enables DeepSeek-V3 to match the performance of leading closed-source models such as Claude Sonnet 4.5. Our results demonstrate that recursive, modular agent architectures can scale reasoning depth while remaining interpretable, flexible, and model-agnostic.

Recent advances in large language models have improved the capabilities of coding agents, yet systematic evaluation of complex, end-to-end website development remains limited. To address this gap, we introduce Vision2Web, a hierarchical benchmark for visual website development, spanning from static UI-to-code generation, interactive multi-page frontend reproduction, to long-horizon full-stack website development. The benchmark is constructed from real-world websites and comprises a total of 193 tasks across 16 categories, with 918 prototype images and 1,255 test cases. To support flexible, thorough and reliable evaluation, we propose workflow-based agent verification paradigm based on two complementary components: a GUI agent verifier and a VLM-based judge. We evaluate multiple visual language models instantiated under different coding-agent frameworks, revealing substantial performance gaps at all task levels, with state-of-the-art models still struggling on full-stack development.

The emergence of tool-calling-based agent systems introduces a more evidence-driven paradigm for pathology image analysis in contrast to the coarse-grained text-image diagnostic approaches. With the recent large-scale experimental adoption of spatial transcriptomics technologies, molecularly validated pathological diagnosis is becoming increasingly open and accessible. In this work, we propose LAMMI-Pathology (LVLM-Agent System for Molecularly Informed Medical Intelligence in Pathology), a scalable agent framework for domain-specific agent tool-calling. LAMMI-Pathology adopts a tool-centric, bottom-up architecture in which customized domain-adaptive tools serve as the foundation. These tools are clustered by domain style to form component agents, which are then coordinated through a top-level planner hierarchically, avoiding excessively long context lengths that could induce task drift. Based on that, we introduce a novel trajectory construction mechanism based on Atomic Execution Nodes (AENs), which serve as reliable and composable units for building semi-simulated reasoning trajectories that capture credible agent-tool interactions. Building on this foundation, we develop a trajectory-aware fine-tuning strategy that aligns the planner's decision-making process with these multi-step reasoning trajectories, thereby enhancing inference robustness in pathology understanding and its adaptive use of the customized toolset.

Machine Learning (ML) research is spread through academic papers featuring rich multimodal content, including text, diagrams, and tabular results. However, translating these multimodal elements into executable code remains a challenging and time-consuming process that requires substantial ML expertise. We introduce ``Paper-to-Code'' (P2C), a novel task that transforms the multimodal content of scientific publications into fully executable code repositories, which extends beyond the existing formulation of code generation that merely converts textual descriptions into isolated code snippets. To automate the P2C process, we propose AutoP2C, a multi-agent framework based on large language models that processes both textual and visual content from research papers to generate complete code repositories. Specifically, AutoP2C contains four stages: (1) repository blueprint extraction from established codebases, (2) multimodal content parsing that integrates information from text, equations, and figures, (3) hierarchical task decomposition for structured code generation, and (4) iterative feedback-driven debugging to ensure functionality and performance. Evaluation on a benchmark of eight research papers demonstrates the effectiveness of AutoP2C, which can successfully generate executable code repositories for all eight papers, while OpenAI-o1 or DeepSeek-R1 can only produce runnable code for one paper. The code is available at https://github.com/shoushouyu/Automated-Paper-to-Code.

Deep research agents are Large Language Model (LLM)-based systems designed for autonomous, multi-step scientific reasoning, and they hold immense potential for accelerating research in the physical sciences. However, comprehensive and in-depth evaluations of their capabilities within this domain remain lacking. To address this gap, we introduce PhySciBench, a benchmark highly relevant to physical science research, comprising 200 expert-curated questions, balanced between physics and chemistry, across six task categories that reflect real-world scientific workflows. Evaluations of state-of-the-art models and agent systems on PhySciBench reveal limited performance; even the strongest baseline, Gemini Deep Research, achieves an accuracy of only 33.5%. Analysis of failure cases identifies three recurrent deficiencies: fragility in extended reasoning chains, limited knowledge transfer across steps, and a lack of physics-grounded self-verification. Motivated by these findings, we develop DelveAgent, a modular multi-agent framework equipped with an adaptive planning loop, dual-granularity memory, and a hierarchical physics-grounded reflection mechanism. Across four scientific benchmarks, DelveAgent improves accuracy by up to 7.5 percentage points while reducing inference costs to approximately one-third of the strongest baseline. These results establish the significance of PhySciBench as a critical benchmark for evaluating AI systems in the physical sciences and demonstrate that architectural specialization can effectively enhance the reliability of autonomous scientific research.

Large Language Model (LLM) based agents are powerful yet fundamentally static after deployment, lacking the ability to autonomously expand capabilities, generate new tools, or evolve their reasoning. This work introduces a hierarchical self-evolving multi-agent framework that integrates a Base LLM, an operational SLM agent, a Code-Generation LLM, and a Teacher-LLM to enable continuous adaptation. The workflow begins with the agent attempting a task using reasoning and existing tools; if unsuccessful, it escalates to tool synthesis through the Code-Gen LLM, and when failures persist, it triggers an evolution phase using Curriculum Learning (CL), Reward-Based Learning (RL), or Genetic Algorithm (GA) evolution. Using the TaskCraft dataset rich in hierarchical tasks, tool-use traces, and difficulty scaling we evaluate these paradigms. CL delivers fast recovery and strong generalization, RL excels on high-difficulty tasks, and GA offers high behavioral diversity. Across all settings, evolved agents outperform their originals, demonstrating robust, autonomous, self-improving agentic evolution.

To fulfill user instructions, autonomous web agents must contend with the inherent complexity and volatile nature of real-world websites. Conventional paradigms predominantly rely on Supervised Fine-Tuning (SFT) or Offline Reinforcement Learning (RL) using static datasets. However, these methods suffer from severe distributional shifts, as offline trajectories fail to capture the stochastic state transitions and real-time feedback of unconstrained wide web environments. In this paper, we propose a robust Online Reinforcement Learning WebAgent, designed to optimize its policy through direct, iterative interactions with unconstrained wide websites. Our approach comprises three core innovations: 1) Hierarchical Multi-Task Fine-tuning: We curate a comprehensive mixture of datasets categorized by functional primitives -- Planning, Acting, and Grounding -- establishing a Vision-Language Model (VLM) with strong instruction-following capabilities for Web GUI tasks. 2) Online Agentic RL in the Wild: We develop an online interaction environment and fine-tune the VLM using a specialized RL pipeline. We introduce a Hybrid Reward Mechanism that combines a ground-truth-agnostic WebJudge for holistic outcome assessment with a Rule-based Decision Tree (RDT) for progress reward. This system effectively mitigates the credit assignment challenge in long-horizon navigation. Notably, our RL-enhanced model achieves a 38.1\% success rate (pass@5) on WebArena, outperforming all existing monolithic baselines. 3) Operator Agent: We introduce a modular agentic framework, namely OpAgent, orchestrating a Planner, Grounder, Reflector, and Summarizer. This synergy enables robust error recovery and self-correction, elevating the agent's performance to a new State-of-the-Art (SOTA) success rate of 71.6\%.

Test-time scaling has become an effective paradigm for improving the reasoning ability of large language models by allocating additional computation during inference. Recent structured approaches have further advanced this paradigm by organizing inference across multiple trajectories, refinement rounds, and verification-based feedback. However, existing structured test-time scaling methods either weakly coordinate parallel reasoning trajectories or rely on noisy historical information without explicitly deciding what should be retained and reused, limiting their ability to balance exploration and exploitation. In this work, we propose TMAS, a framework for scaling test-time compute via multi-agent synergy. TMAS organizes inference as a collaborative process among specialized agents, enabling structured information flow across agents, trajectories, and refinement iterations. To support effective cross-trajectory collaboration, TMAS introduces hierarchical memories: the experience bank reuses low-level reliable intermediate conclusions and local feedback, while the guideline bank records previously explored high-level strategies to steer subsequent rollouts away from redundant reasoning patterns. Furthermore, we design a hybrid reward reinforcement learning scheme tailored to TMAS, which jointly preserves basic reasoning capability, enhances experience utilization, and encourages exploration beyond previously attempted solution strategies. Extensive experiments on challenging reasoning benchmarks demonstrate that TMAS achieves stronger iterative scaling than existing test-time scaling baselines, while hybrid reward training further improves scaling effectiveness and stability across iterations. Code and data are available at https://github.com/george-QF/TMAS-code.

While specialized AI models excel at isolated video tasks like generation or understanding, real-world applications demand complex, iterative workflows that combine these capabilities. To bridge this gap, we introduce UniVA, an open-source, omni-capable multi-agent framework for next-generation video generalists that unifies video understanding, segmentation, editing, and generation into cohesive workflows. UniVA employs a Plan-and-Act dual-agent architecture that drives a highly automated and proactive workflow: a planner agent interprets user intentions and decomposes them into structured video-processing steps, while executor agents execute these through modular, MCP-based tool servers (for analysis, generation, editing, tracking, etc.). Through a hierarchical multi-level memory (global knowledge, task context, and user-specific preferences), UniVA sustains long-horizon reasoning, contextual continuity, and inter-agent communication, enabling interactive and self-reflective video creation with full traceability. This design enables iterative and any-conditioned video workflows (e.g., text/image/video-conditioned generation rightarrow multi-round editing rightarrow object segmentation rightarrow compositional synthesis) that were previously cumbersome to achieve with single-purpose models or monolithic video-language models. We also introduce UniVA-Bench, a benchmark suite of multi-step video tasks spanning understanding, editing, segmentation, and generation, to rigorously evaluate such agentic video systems. Both UniVA and UniVA-Bench are fully open-sourced, aiming to catalyze research on interactive, agentic, and general-purpose video intelligence for the next generation of multimodal AI systems. (https://univa.online/)

Intelligent agent systems based on Large Language Models (LLMs) have shown great potential in real-world applications. However, existing agent frameworks still face critical limitations in task planning and execution, restricting their effectiveness and generalizability. Specifically, current planning methods often lack clear global goals, leading agents to get stuck in local branches, or produce non-executable plans. Meanwhile, existing execution mechanisms struggle to balance complexity and stability, and their limited action space restricts their ability to handle diverse real-world tasks. To address these limitations, we propose GoalAct, a novel agent framework that introduces a continuously updated global planning mechanism and integrates a hierarchical execution strategy. GoalAct decomposes task execution into high-level skills, including searching, coding, writing and more, thereby reducing planning complexity while enhancing the agents' adaptability across diverse task scenarios. We evaluate GoalAct on LegalAgentBench, a benchmark with multiple types of legal tasks that require the use of multiple types of tools. Experimental results demonstrate that GoalAct achieves state-of-the-art (SOTA) performance, with an average improvement of 12.22% in success rate. These findings highlight GoalAct's potential to drive the development of more advanced intelligent agent systems, making them more effective across complex real-world applications. Our code can be found at https://github.com/cjj826/GoalAct.

Large Language Models have demonstrated remarkable capabilities across diverse domains, yet significant challenges persist when deploying them as AI agents for real-world long-horizon tasks. Existing LLM agents suffer from a critical limitation: they are test-time static and cannot learn from experience, lacking the ability to accumulate knowledge and continuously improve on the job. To address this challenge, we propose MUSE, a novel agent framework that introduces an experience-driven, self-evolving system centered around a hierarchical Memory Module. MUSE organizes diverse levels of experience and leverages them to plan and execute long-horizon tasks across multiple applications. After each sub-task execution, the agent autonomously reflects on its trajectory, converting the raw trajectory into structured experience and integrating it back into the Memory Module. This mechanism enables the agent to evolve beyond its static pretrained parameters, fostering continuous learning and self-evolution. We evaluate MUSE on the long-horizon productivity benchmark TAC. It achieves new SOTA performance by a significant margin using only a lightweight Gemini-2.5 Flash model. Sufficient Experiments demonstrate that as the agent autonomously accumulates experience, it exhibits increasingly superior task completion capabilities, as well as robust continuous learning and self-evolution capabilities. Moreover, the accumulated experience from MUSE exhibits strong generalization properties, enabling zero-shot improvement on new tasks. MUSE establishes a new paradigm for AI agents capable of real-world productivity task automation.

Recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs) have exhibited notable efficacy in question-answering (QA) tasks across diverse domains. Their prowess in integrating extensive web knowledge has fueled interest in developing LLM-based autonomous agents. While LLMs are efficient in decoding human instructions and deriving solutions by holistically processing historical inputs, transitioning to purpose-driven agents requires a supplementary rational architecture to process multi-source information, establish reasoning chains, and prioritize critical tasks. Addressing this, we introduce FinMem, a novel LLM-based agent framework devised for financial decision-making. It encompasses three core modules: Profiling, to customize the agent's characteristics; Memory, with layered message processing, to aid the agent in assimilating hierarchical financial data; and Decision-making, to convert insights gained from memories into investment decisions. Notably, FinMem's memory module aligns closely with the cognitive structure of human traders, offering robust interpretability and real-time tuning. Its adjustable cognitive span allows for the retention of critical information beyond human perceptual limits, thereby enhancing trading outcomes. This framework enables the agent to self-evolve its professional knowledge, react agilely to new investment cues, and continuously refine trading decisions in the volatile financial environment. We first compare FinMem with various algorithmic agents on a scalable real-world financial dataset, underscoring its leading trading performance in stocks. We then fine-tuned the agent's perceptual span and character setting to achieve a significantly enhanced trading performance. Collectively, FinMem presents a cutting-edge LLM agent framework for automated trading, boosting cumulative investment returns.

Long-form video understanding requires efficient navigation of extensive visual data to pinpoint sparse yet critical information. Current approaches to longform video understanding either suffer from severe computational overhead due to dense preprocessing, or fail to effectively balance exploration and exploitation, resulting in incomplete information coverage and inefficiency. In this work, we introduce EEA, a novel video agent framework that archives exploration-exploitation balance through semantic guidance with hierarchical tree search process. EEA autonomously discovers and dynamically updates task-relevant semantic queries, and collects video frames closely matched to these queries as semantic anchors. During the tree search process, instead of uniform expansion, EEA preferentially explores semantically relevant frames while ensuring sufficient coverage within unknown segments. Moreover, EEA adaptively combines intrinsic rewards from visionlanguage models (VLMs) with semantic priors by explicitly modeling uncertainty to achieve stable and precise evaluation of video segments. Experiments across various long-video benchmarks validate the superior performance and computational efficiency of our proposed method.

Online video understanding requires models to perform continuous perception and long-range reasoning within potentially infinite visual streams. Its fundamental challenge lies in the conflict between the unbounded nature of streaming media input and the limited context window of Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). Current methods primarily rely on passive processing, which often face a trade-off between maintaining long-range context and capturing the fine-grained details necessary for complex tasks. To address this, we introduce EventMemAgent, an active online video agent framework based on a hierarchical memory module. Our framework employs a dual-layer strategy for online videos: short-term memory detects event boundaries and utilizes event-granular reservoir sampling to process streaming video frames within a fixed-length buffer dynamically; long-term memory structuredly archives past observations on an event-by-event basis. Furthermore, we integrate a multi-granular perception toolkit for active, iterative evidence capture and employ Agentic Reinforcement Learning (Agentic RL) to end-to-end internalize reasoning and tool-use strategies into the agent's intrinsic capabilities. Experiments show that EventMemAgent achieves competitive results on online video benchmarks. The code will be released here: https://github.com/lingcco/EventMemAgent.

Exploratory GUI testing is essential for software quality but suffers from high manual costs. While Multi-modal Large Language Model (MLLM) agents excel in navigation, they fail to autonomously discover defects due to two core challenges: Goal-Oriented Masking, where agents prioritize task completion over reporting anomalies, and Execution-Bias Attribution, where system defects are misidentified as agent errors. To address these, we first introduce GUITestBench, the first interactive benchmark for this task, featuring 143 tasks across 26 defects. We then propose GUITester, a multi-agent framework that decouples navigation from verification via two modules: (i) a Planning-Execution Module (PEM) that proactively probes for defects via embedded testing intents, and (ii) a Hierarchical Reflection Module (HRM) that resolves attribution ambiguity through interaction history analysis. GUITester achieves an F1-score of 48.90\% (Pass@3) on GUITestBench, outperforming state-of-the-art baselines (33.35\%). Our work demonstrates the feasibility of autonomous exploratory testing and provides a robust foundation for future GUI quality assurance~Our code is now available in~\href{https://github.com/ADaM-BJTU/GUITestBench{https://github.com/ADaM-BJTU/GUITestBench}}.

Autonomous Graphical User Interface (GUI) agents often struggle with multi-step tasks due to constrained context windows and static policies that fail to adapt to dynamic environments. To address these limitations, this work proposes the Self-Evolving GUI Agent (SE-GA), a novel framework that integrates hierarchical memory structures with an iterative self-improvement mechanism. At the core of our approach is Test-Time Memory Extension (TTME), which facilitates long-term planning by dynamically retrieving episodic, semantic, and experiential memories to provide salient contexts during inference. To ensure continuous learning, we introduce Memory-Augmented Self-Evolution (MASE), which is a training pipeline that adopts the data collected by TTME to stabilize and enhance the agent's foundational policy. Extensive evaluations across both offline and online benchmarks demonstrate SE-GA achieves state-of-the-art performance, reaching success rates of 89.0\% on ScreenSpot and 75.8\% on the challenging AndroidControl-High dataset. Furthermore, significant improvements on the AndroidWorld benchmark highlight the superior generalization to dynamic environments. Open source code: https://github.com/jinshilong-dev/SE-GA

Automating the transformation of user interface (UI) designs into front-end code holds significant promise for accelerating software development and democratizing design workflows. While multimodal large language models (MLLMs) can translate images to code, they often fail on complex UIs, struggling to unify visual perception, layout planning, and code synthesis within a single monolithic model, which leads to frequent perception and planning errors. To address this, we propose ScreenCoder, a modular multi-agent framework that decomposes the task into three interpretable stages: grounding, planning, and generation. By assigning these distinct responsibilities to specialized agents, our framework achieves significantly higher robustness and fidelity than end-to-end approaches. Furthermore, ScreenCoder serves as a scalable data engine, enabling us to generate high-quality image-code pairs. We use this data to fine-tune open-source MLLM via a dual-stage pipeline of supervised fine-tuning and reinforcement learning, demonstrating substantial gains in its UI generation capabilities. Extensive experiments demonstrate that our approach achieves state-of-the-art performance in layout accuracy, structural coherence, and code correctness. Our code is made publicly available at https://github.com/leigest519/ScreenCoder.

Large Language Models are increasingly deployed as autonomous agents for complex real-world tasks, yet existing systems often focus on isolated improvements without a unifying design for robustness and adaptability. We propose a generalist agent architecture that integrates three core components: a collective multi-agent framework combining planning and execution agents with critic model voting, a hierarchical memory system spanning working, semantic, and procedural layers, and a refined tool suite for search, code execution, and multimodal parsing. Evaluated on a comprehensive benchmark, our framework consistently outperforms open-source baselines and approaches the performance of proprietary systems. These results demonstrate the importance of system-level integration and highlight a path toward scalable, resilient, and adaptive AI assistants capable of operating across diverse domains and tasks.

Traditional data processing pipelines are typically static and handcrafted for specific tasks, limiting their adaptability to evolving requirements. While general-purpose agents and coding assistants can generate code for well-understood data pipelines, they lack the ability to autonomously monitor, manage, and optimize an end-to-end pipeline once deployed. We present Autonomous Data Processing using Meta-agents (ADP-MA), a framework that dynamically constructs, executes, and iteratively refines data processing pipelines through hierarchical agent orchestration. At its core, meta-agents analyze input data and task specifications to design a multi-phase plan, instantiate specialized ground-level agents, and continuously evaluate pipeline performance. The architecture comprises three key components: a planning module for strategy generation, an orchestration layer for agent coordination and tool integration, and a monitoring loop for iterative evaluation and backtracking. Unlike conventional approaches, ADP-MA emphasizes context-aware optimization, adaptive workload partitioning, and progressive sampling for scalability. Additionally, the framework leverages a diverse set of external tools and can reuse previously designed agents, reducing redundancy and accelerating pipeline construction. We demonstrate ADP-MA through an interactive demo that showcases pipeline construction, execution monitoring, and adaptive refinement across representative data processing tasks.

Information seeking and integration is a complex cognitive task that consumes enormous time and effort. Inspired by the remarkable progress of Large Language Models, recent works attempt to solve this task by combining LLMs and search engines. However, these methods still obtain unsatisfying performance due to three challenges: (1) complex requests often cannot be accurately and completely retrieved by the search engine once (2) corresponding information to be integrated is spread over multiple web pages along with massive noise, and (3) a large number of web pages with long contents may quickly exceed the maximum context length of LLMs. Inspired by the cognitive process when humans solve these problems, we introduce MindSearch to mimic the human minds in web information seeking and integration, which can be instantiated by a simple yet effective LLM-based multi-agent framework. The WebPlanner models the human mind of multi-step information seeking as a dynamic graph construction process: it decomposes the user query into atomic sub-questions as nodes in the graph and progressively extends the graph based on the search result from WebSearcher. Tasked with each sub-question, WebSearcher performs hierarchical information retrieval with search engines and collects valuable information for WebPlanner. The multi-agent design of MindSearch enables the whole framework to seek and integrate information parallelly from larger-scale (e.g., more than 300) web pages in 3 minutes, which is worth 3 hours of human effort. MindSearch demonstrates significant improvement in the response quality in terms of depth and breadth, on both close-set and open-set QA problems. Besides, responses from MindSearch based on InternLM2.5-7B are preferable by humans to ChatGPT-Web and Perplexity.ai applications, which implies that MindSearch can already deliver a competitive solution to the proprietary AI search engine.

While server-side Large Language Models (LLMs) demonstrate proficiency in function calling and complex reasoning, deploying Small Language Models (SLMs) directly on devices brings opportunities to improve latency and privacy but also introduces unique challenges for accuracy and memory. We introduce CAMPHOR, an innovative on-device SLM multi-agent framework designed to handle multiple user inputs and reason over personal context locally, ensuring privacy is maintained. CAMPHOR employs a hierarchical architecture where a high-order reasoning agent decomposes complex tasks and coordinates expert agents responsible for personal context retrieval, tool interaction, and dynamic plan generation. By implementing parameter sharing across agents and leveraging prompt compression, we significantly reduce model size, latency, and memory usage. To validate our approach, we present a novel dataset capturing multi-agent task trajectories centered on personalized mobile assistant use-cases. Our experiments reveal that fine-tuned SLM agents not only surpass closed-source LLMs in task completion F1 by~35\% but also eliminate the need for server-device communication, all while enhancing privacy.

Artificial intelligence is reshaping scientific exploration, but most methods automate procedural tasks without engaging in scientific reasoning, limiting autonomy in discovery. We introduce Materials Agents for Simulation and Theory in Electronic-structure Reasoning (MASTER), an active learning framework where large language models autonomously design, execute, and interpret atomistic simulations. In MASTER, a multimodal system translates natural language into density functional theory workflows, while higher-level reasoning agents guide discovery through a hierarchy of strategies, including a single agent baseline and three multi-agent approaches: peer review, triage-ranking, and triage-forms. Across two chemical applications, CO adsorption on Cu-surface transition metal (M) adatoms and on M-N-C catalysts, reasoning-driven exploration reduces required atomistic simulations by up to 90% relative to trial-and-error selection. Reasoning trajectories reveal chemically grounded decisions that cannot be explained by stochastic sampling or semantic bias. Altogether, multi-agent collaboration accelerates materials discovery and marks a new paradigm for autonomous scientific exploration.

We present a novel training-free framework, PosterForest, for automated scientific poster generation. Unlike prior approaches, which largely neglect the hierarchical structure of scientific documents and the semantic integration of textual and visual elements, our method addresses both challenges directly. We introduce the Poster Tree, a hierarchical intermediate representation that jointly encodes document structure and visual-textual relationships at multiple levels. Our framework employs a multi-agent collaboration strategy, where agents specializing in content summarization and layout planning iteratively coordinate and provide mutual feedback. This approach enables the joint optimization of logical consistency, content fidelity, and visual coherence. Extensive experiments on multiple academic domains show that our method outperforms existing baselines in both qualitative and quantitative evaluations. The resulting posters achieve quality closest to expert-designed ground truth and deliver superior information preservation, structural clarity, and user preference.

AI agents powered by Large Language Models (LLMs) have made significant advances, enabling them to assist humans in diverse complex tasks and leading to a revolution in human-AI coordination. LLM-powered agents typically require invoking LLM APIs and employing artificially designed complex prompts, which results in high inference latency. While this paradigm works well in scenarios with minimal interactive demands, such as code generation, it is unsuitable for highly interactive and real-time applications, such as gaming. Traditional gaming AI often employs small models or reactive policies, enabling fast inference but offering limited task completion and interaction abilities. In this work, we consider Overcooked as our testbed where players could communicate with natural language and cooperate to serve orders. We propose a Hierarchical Language Agent (HLA) for human-AI coordination that provides both strong reasoning abilities while keeping real-time execution. In particular, HLA adopts a hierarchical framework and comprises three modules: a proficient LLM, referred to as Slow Mind, for intention reasoning and language interaction, a lightweight LLM, referred to as Fast Mind, for generating macro actions, and a reactive policy, referred to as Executor, for transforming macro actions into atomic actions. Human studies show that HLA outperforms other baseline agents, including slow-mind-only agents and fast-mind-only agents, with stronger cooperation abilities, faster responses, and more consistent language communications.

Efficient downlink radio resource management in 5G requires jointly optimizing user scheduling and transmit-power allocation under time-varying wireless conditions. This is challenging in OFDMA systems because PRB assignment is combinatorial, power allocation is continuous, and performance depends on channel evolution, link adaptation, and long-term fairness. We propose a hierarchical cooperative multi-agent reinforcement learning framework with staged curriculum training for joint downlink PRB and power allocation in a physically grounded 5G environment. System-level simulation is implemented in Sionna, while Sionna RT supports wireless scene construction and mobility-aware ray-traced channel generation. The control task is decomposed into two sequential stages: a PRB agent learns user-level resource shares, which are converted to exact PRB assignments by a deterministic channel-aware quota resolver, and a power agent distributes the base-station power budget across users and their assigned PRB-symbol resources. The framework operates in a cross-layer loop with adaptive modulation and coding, HARQ feedback, outer-loop link adaptation, and a fairness-aware reward based on smoothed throughput and Jain's fairness index. Training stability is improved through a three-phase curriculum for PRB allocation, power control, and joint fine-tuning. Under matched channel realizations, we compare against a PF scheduler with equal-power transmission and two ablations isolating the learned PRB and power-control components. Results show that both learned components improve throughput distribution relative to PF, while the full PRB and power controller achieves the largest cell-throughput gain with only a modest reduction in Jain's fairness index.

Cooperative multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL) is widely used to address large joint observation and action spaces by decomposing a centralized control problem into multiple interacting agents. However, such decomposition often introduces additional challenges, including non-stationarity, unstable training, weak coordination, and limited theoretical guarantees. In this paper, we propose the Consensus Multi-Agent Transformer (CMAT), a centralized framework that bridges cooperative MARL to a hierarchical single-agent reinforcement learning (SARL) formulation. CMAT treats all agents as a unified entity and employs a Transformer encoder to process the large joint observation space. To handle the extensive joint action space, we introduce a hierarchical decision-making mechanism in which a Transformer decoder autoregressively generates a high-level consensus vector, simulating the process by which agents reach agreement on their strategies in latent space. Conditioned on this consensus, all agents generate their actions simultaneously, enabling order-independent joint decision making and avoiding the sensitivity to action-generation order in conventional Multi-Agent Transformers (MAT). This factorization allows the joint policy to be optimized using single-agent PPO while preserving expressive coordination through the latent consensus. To evaluate the proposed method, we conduct experiments on benchmark tasks from StarCraft II, Multi-Agent MuJoCo, and Google Research Football. The results show that CMAT achieves superior performance over recent centralized solutions, sequential MARL methods, and conventional MARL baselines. The code for this paper is available at:https://github.com/RS2002/CMAT .

Large language models (LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable potential in transforming recommender systems from implicit behavioral pattern matching to explicit intent reasoning. While RecGPT-V1 successfully pioneered this paradigm by integrating LLM-based reasoning into user interest mining and item tag prediction, it suffers from four fundamental limitations: (1) computational inefficiency and cognitive redundancy across multiple reasoning routes; (2) insufficient explanation diversity in fixed-template generation; (3) limited generalization under supervised learning paradigms; and (4) simplistic outcome-focused evaluation that fails to match human standards. To address these challenges, we present RecGPT-V2 with four key innovations. First, a Hierarchical Multi-Agent System restructures intent reasoning through coordinated collaboration, eliminating cognitive duplication while enabling diverse intent coverage. Combined with Hybrid Representation Inference that compresses user-behavior contexts, our framework reduces GPU consumption by 60% and improves exclusive recall from 9.39% to 10.99%. Second, a Meta-Prompting framework dynamically generates contextually adaptive prompts, improving explanation diversity by +7.3%. Third, constrained reinforcement learning mitigates multi-reward conflicts, achieving +24.1% improvement in tag prediction and +13.0% in explanation acceptance. Fourth, an Agent-as-a-Judge framework decomposes assessment into multi-step reasoning, improving human preference alignment. Online A/B tests on Taobao demonstrate significant improvements: +2.98% CTR, +3.71% IPV, +2.19% TV, and +11.46% NER. RecGPT-V2 establishes both the technical feasibility and commercial viability of deploying LLM-powered intent reasoning at scale, bridging the gap between cognitive exploration and industrial utility.

The rapid progress of Artificial Intelligence Generated Content (AIGC) tools enables images, videos, and visualizations to be created on demand for webpage design, offering a flexible and increasingly adopted paradigm for modern UI/UX. However, directly integrating such tools into automated webpage generation often leads to style inconsistency and poor global coherence, as elements are generated in isolation. We propose MM-WebAgent, a hierarchical agentic framework for multimodal webpage generation that coordinates AIGC-based element generation through hierarchical planning and iterative self-reflection. MM-WebAgent jointly optimizes global layout, local multimodal content, and their integration, producing coherent and visually consistent webpages. We further introduce a benchmark for multimodal webpage generation and a multi-level evaluation protocol for systematic assessment. Experiments demonstrate that MM-WebAgent outperforms code-generation and agent-based baselines, especially on multimodal element generation and integration. Code & Data: https://aka.ms/mm-webagent.

The rise of AI agents introduces complex safety and security challenges arising from autonomous tool use and environmental interactions. Current guardrail models lack agentic risk awareness and transparency in risk diagnosis. To introduce an agentic guardrail that covers complex and numerous risky behaviors, we first propose a unified three-dimensional taxonomy that orthogonally categorizes agentic risks by their source (where), failure mode (how), and consequence (what). Guided by this structured and hierarchical taxonomy, we introduce a new fine-grained agentic safety benchmark (ATBench) and a Diagnostic Guardrail framework for agent safety and security (AgentDoG). AgentDoG provides fine-grained and contextual monitoring across agent trajectories. More Crucially, AgentDoG can diagnose the root causes of unsafe actions and seemingly safe but unreasonable actions, offering provenance and transparency beyond binary labels to facilitate effective agent alignment. AgentDoG variants are available in three sizes (4B, 7B, and 8B parameters) across Qwen and Llama model families. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that AgentDoG achieves state-of-the-art performance in agentic safety moderation in diverse and complex interactive scenarios. All models and datasets are openly released.

The Materials Genome Initiative catalyzed the proliferation of centralized platforms--SaaS, PaaS, and IaaS--that aggregate computational and experimental resources for accelerated materials discovery. In parallel, breakthroughs in large language models (LLMs) and autonomous agents have created powerful new reasoning capabilities for scientific research. Yet a critical "last mile" problem remains: while we possess world-class models and vast repositories of materials data, we lack the organizational infrastructure to compose these capabilities securely across institutional boundaries. The development of structural and functional materials for harsh service environments--high-temperature alloys, radiation resistant steels, corrosion-resistant coatings--remains characterized by long-term iteration, mechanistic complexity, and high domain expertise--demands that exceed both monolithic agent systems and traditional centralized platforms. To address this gap we propose OpenAaaS, an open-source hierarchical and distributed Agent-as-a-Service framework that enables organized multi-agent collaboration for intelligent materials design. OpenAaaS is built on a single foundational principle: code flows, data stays still. A Master Agent plans and decomposes complex research tasks without requiring direct access to subordinate agents' managed data and computational resources. Sub-agents, deployed as near-data execution nodes, retain full sovereignty over local datasets, proprietary algorithms, and specialized hardware. This architecture guarantees that raw data never leaves its domain of origin while enabling cross-scale, cross-domain secure integration of previously isolated materials intelligence silos. We validate the framework through two representative case studies: (i) AlphaAgent, an evidence-grounded materials literature analysis executor that achieves 4.66/5.0 on deep analytical questions against single-pass RAG baselines; and (ii) an ultra-large-scale hexa-high-entropy alloy descriptor database service that demonstrates secure near-data execution and domain-specific scientific workflows under strict data-sovereignty constraints. OpenAaaS establishes a principled pathway toward "organized research" via agent collectives, offering a scalable foundation for next-generation materials intelligent design platforms. All source code is available at https://github.com/Wolido/OpenAaaS.

Even in the era of rapid advances in large models, video understanding remains a highly challenging task. Compared to texts or images, videos commonly contain more information with redundancy, requiring large models to properly allocate attention at a global level for comprehensive and accurate understanding. To address this, we propose a Multimodal hierarchical Attention focusing Self-reflective Reasoning (MASR) framework for agent-based video understanding. The key innovation lies in its ability to detect and prioritize segments of videos that are highly relevant to the query. Firstly, MASR realizes Multimodal Coarse-to-fine Relevance Sensing (MCRS) which enhances the correlation between the acquired contextual information and the query. Secondly, MASR employs Dilated Temporal Expansion (DTE) to mitigate the risk of missing crucial details when extracting semantic information from the focused frames selected through MCRS. By iteratively applying MCRS and DTE in the self-reflective reasoning process, MASR is able to adaptively adjust the attention to extract highly query-relevant context and therefore improve the response accuracy. In the EgoSchema dataset, MASR achieves a remarkable 5% performance gain over previous leading approaches. In the Next-QA and IntentQA datasets, it outperforms the state-of-the-art standards by 0.2% and 0.3% respectively. In the Video-MME dataset that contains long-term videos, MASR also performs better than other agent-based methods.

Large Language Model (LLM)-based agents have demonstrated strong capabilities across a wide range of tasks, and their application in the medical domain holds particular promise due to the demand for high generalizability and reliance on interdisciplinary knowledge. However, existing medical agent systems often rely on static, manually crafted workflows that lack the flexibility to accommodate diverse diagnostic requirements and adapt to emerging clinical scenarios. Motivated by the success of automated machine learning (AutoML), this paper introduces a novel framework for the automated design of medical agent architectures. Specifically, we define a hierarchical and expressive agent search space that enables dynamic workflow adaptation through structured modifications at the node, structural, and framework levels. Our framework conceptualizes medical agents as graph-based architectures composed of diverse, functional node types and supports iterative self-improvement guided by diagnostic feedback. Experimental results on skin disease diagnosis tasks demonstrate that the proposed method effectively evolves workflow structures and significantly enhances diagnostic accuracy over time. This work represents the first fully automated framework for medical agent architecture design and offers a scalable, adaptable foundation for deploying intelligent agents in real-world clinical environments.

Reproducing buggy code is the first and crucially important step in issue resolving, as it aids in identifying the underlying problems and validating that generated patches resolve the problem. While numerous approaches have been proposed for this task, they primarily address common, widespread errors and struggle to adapt to unique, evolving errors specific to individual code repositories. To fill this gap, we propose EvoCoder, a multi-agent continuous learning framework for issue code reproduction. EvoCoder adopts a reflection mechanism that allows the LLM to continuously learn from previously resolved problems and dynamically refine its strategies to new emerging challenges. To prevent experience bloating, EvoCoder introduces a novel hierarchical experience pool that enables the model to adaptively update common and repo-specific experiences. Our experimental results show a 20\% improvement in issue reproduction rates over existing SOTA methods. Furthermore, integrating our reproduction mechanism significantly boosts the overall accuracy of the existing issue-resolving pipeline.

The dawn of embodied intelligence has ushered in an unprecedented imperative for resilient, cognition-enabled multi-agent collaboration across next-generation ecosystems, revolutionizing paradigms in autonomous manufacturing, adaptive service robotics, and cyber-physical production architectures. However, current robotic systems face significant limitations, such as limited cross-embodiment adaptability, inefficient task scheduling, and insufficient dynamic error correction. While End-to-end VLA models demonstrate inadequate long-horizon planning and task generalization, hierarchical VLA models suffer from a lack of cross-embodiment and multi-agent coordination capabilities. To address these challenges, we introduce RoboOS, the first open-source embodied system built on a Brain-Cerebellum hierarchical architecture, enabling a paradigm shift from single-agent to multi-agent intelligence. Specifically, RoboOS consists of three key components: (1) Embodied Brain Model (RoboBrain), a MLLM designed for global perception and high-level decision-making; (2) Cerebellum Skill Library, a modular, plug-and-play toolkit that facilitates seamless execution of multiple skills; and (3) Real-Time Shared Memory, a spatiotemporal synchronization mechanism for coordinating multi-agent states. By integrating hierarchical information flow, RoboOS bridges Embodied Brain and Cerebellum Skill Library, facilitating robust planning, scheduling, and error correction for long-horizon tasks, while ensuring efficient multi-agent collaboration through Real-Time Shared Memory. Furthermore, we enhance edge-cloud communication and cloud-based distributed inference to facilitate high-frequency interactions and enable scalable deployment. Extensive real-world experiments across various scenarios, demonstrate RoboOS's versatility in supporting heterogeneous embodiments. Project website: https://github.com/FlagOpen/RoboOS

The dominant paradigm for improving mathematical reasoning in language models relies on Reinforcement Learning with verifiable rewards. Yet existing methods treat each problem instance in isolation without leveraging the reusable strategies that emerge and accumulate during training. To this end, we introduce ARISE (Agent Reasoning via Intrinsic Skill Evolution), a hierarchical reinforcement learning framework, in which a shared policy operates both to manage skills at high-level and to generate responses at low-level (denoted as a Skills Manager and a Worker, respectively). The Manager maintains a tiered skill library through a dedicated skill generation rollout that performs structured summarization of successful solution traces (after execution), while employing a policy-driven selection mechanism to retrieve relevant skills to condition future rollouts (before execution). A hierarchical reward design guides the co-evolution of reasoning ability and library quality. Experiments on two base models and seven benchmarks spanning both competition mathematics and Omni-MATH show that ARISE consistently outperforms GRPO-family algorithms and memory-augmented baselines, with particularly notable gains on out-of-distribution tasks. Ablation studies confirm that each component contributes to the observed improvements and that library quality and reasoning performance improve in tandem throughout training. Code is available at https://github.com/Skylanding/ARISE{https://github.com/Skylanding/ARISE}.

Large language model (LLM) agents have demonstrated strong capabilities across diverse domains. However, designing high-performing agentic systems remains challenging. Existing agent search methods suffer from three major limitations: (1) an emphasis on optimizing agentic workflows while under-utilizing proven human-designed components such as memory, planning, and tool use; (2) high evaluation costs, as each newly generated agent must be fully evaluated on benchmarks; and (3) inefficient search in large search space. In this work, we introduce a comprehensive framework to address these challenges. First, We propose a hierarchical search space that jointly models agentic workflow and composable functional components, enabling richer agentic system designs. Building on this structured design space, we introduce a predictive value model that estimates agent performance given agentic system and task description, allowing for efficient, low-cost evaluation during the search process. Finally, we present a hierarchical Monte Carlo Tree Search (MCTS) strategy informed by uncertainty to guide the search. Experiments on seven benchmarks, covering embodied, math, web, tool, and game, show that our method achieves an average performance gain of 8.34\% over state-of-the-art baselines and exhibits faster search progress with steeper improvement trajectories. Code repo is available at https://github.com/Ericccc02/AgentSwift.

While GUI agents have shown strong performance under explicit and completion instructions, real-world deployment requires aligning with users' more complex implicit intents. In this work, we highlight Hierarchical Implicit Intent Alignment for Personalized GUI Agent (PersonalAlign), a new agent task that requires agents to leverage long-term user records as persistent context to resolve omitted preferences in vague instructions and anticipate latent routines by user state for proactive assistance. To facilitate this study, we introduce AndroidIntent, a benchmark designed to evaluate agents' ability in resolving vague instructions and providing proactive suggestions through reasoning over long-term user records. We annotated 775 user-specific preferences and 215 routines from 20k long-term records across different users for evaluation. Furthermore, we introduce Hierarchical Intent Memory Agent (HIM-Agent), which maintains a continuously updating personal memory and hierarchically organizes user preferences and routines for personalization. Finally, we evaluate a range of GUI agents on AndroidIntent, including GPT-5, Qwen3-VL, and UI-TARS, further results show that HIM-Agent significantly improves both execution and proactive performance by 15.7% and 7.3%.

Recent advancements in large video models (LVMs) have significantly enhance video understanding. However, these models continue to suffer from hallucinations, producing content that conflicts with input videos. To address this issue, we propose Dr.V, a hierarchical framework covering perceptive, temporal, and cognitive levels to diagnose video hallucination by fine-grained spatial-temporal grounding. Dr.V comprises of two key components: a benchmark dataset Dr.V-Bench and a satellite video agent Dr.V-Agent. Dr.V-Bench includes 10k instances drawn from 4,974 videos spanning diverse tasks, each enriched with detailed spatial-temporal annotation. Dr.V-Agent detects hallucinations in LVMs by systematically applying fine-grained spatial-temporal grounding at the perceptive and temporal levels, followed by cognitive level reasoning. This step-by-step pipeline mirrors human-like video comprehension and effectively identifies hallucinations. Extensive experiments demonstrate that Dr.V-Agent is effective in diagnosing hallucination while enhancing interpretability and reliability, offering a practical blueprint for robust video understanding in real-world scenarios. All our data and code are available at https://github.com/Eurekaleo/Dr.V.

Recently, large reasoning models have demonstrated strong mathematical and coding abilities, and deep search leverages their reasoning capabilities in challenging information retrieval tasks. Existing deep search works are generally limited to a single knowledge source, either local or the Web. However, enterprises often require private deep search systems that can leverage search tools over both local and the Web corpus. Simply training an agent equipped with multiple search tools using flat reinforcement learning (RL) is a straightforward idea, but it has problems such as low training data efficiency and poor mastery of complex tools. To address the above issue, we propose a hierarchical agentic deep search framework, HierSearch, trained with hierarchical RL. At the low level, a local deep search agent and a Web deep search agent are trained to retrieve evidence from their corresponding domains. At the high level, a planner agent coordinates low-level agents and provides the final answer. Moreover, to prevent direct answer copying and error propagation, we design a knowledge refiner that filters out hallucinations and irrelevant evidence returned by low-level agents. Experiments show that HierSearch achieves better performance compared to flat RL, and outperforms various deep search and multi-source retrieval-augmented generation baselines in six benchmarks across general, finance, and medical domains.

With the rapid evolution of foundation models, Large Language Model (LLM) agents have demonstrated increasingly powerful tool-use capabilities. However, this proficiency introduces significant security risks, as malicious actors can manipulate agents into executing tools to generate harmful content. While existing defensive mechanisms are effective, they frequently suffer from the over-refusal problem, where increased safety strictness compromises the agent's utility on benign tasks. To mitigate this trade-off, we propose SafeHarbor, a novel framework designed to establish precise decision boundaries for LLM agents. Unlike static guidelines, SafeHarbor extracts context-aware defense rules through enhanced adversarial generation. We design a local hierarchical memory system for dynamic rule injection, offering a training-free, efficient, and plug-and-play solution. Furthermore, we introduce an information entropy-based self-evolution mechanism that continuously optimizes the memory structure through dynamic node splitting and merging. Extensive experiments demonstrate that SafeHarbor achieves state-of-the-art performance on both ambiguous benign tasks and explicit malicious attacks, notably attaining a peak benign utility of 63.6\% on GPT-4o while maintaining a robust refusal rate exceeding 93\% against harmful requests. The source code is publicly available at https://github.com/ljj-cyber/SafeHarbor.

As large language models (LLMs) evolve into autonomous agents, their real-world applicability has expanded significantly, accompanied by new security challenges. Most existing agent defense mechanisms adopt a mandatory checking paradigm, in which security validation is forcibly triggered at predefined stages of the agent lifecycle. In this work, we argue that effective agent security should be intrinsic and selective rather than architecturally decoupled and mandatory. We propose Spider-Sense framework, an event-driven defense framework based on Intrinsic Risk Sensing (IRS), which allows agents to maintain latent vigilance and trigger defenses only upon risk perception. Once triggered, the Spider-Sense invokes a hierarchical defence mechanism that trades off efficiency and precision: it resolves known patterns via lightweight similarity matching while escalating ambiguous cases to deep internal reasoning, thereby eliminating reliance on external models. To facilitate rigorous evaluation, we introduce S^2Bench, a lifecycle-aware benchmark featuring realistic tool execution and multi-stage attacks. Extensive experiments demonstrate that Spider-Sense achieves competitive or superior defense performance, attaining the lowest Attack Success Rate (ASR) and False Positive Rate (FPR), with only a marginal latency overhead of 8.3\%.

Memory is a fundamental component for enabling long-context LLM agents, supporting persistent state across interactions through a continuous serve-and-update lifecycle. Despite substantial prior work, existing systems suffer from significant maintenance overhead due to two key limitations: coarse-grained state management and inherently sequential update pipelines. In particular, updates are often tightly coupled with LLM inference and require full-state rewrites, leading to poor scalability and growing latency as memory accumulates. To address these challenges, we present MemForest, a memory framework that reformulates agent memory as a write-efficient temporal data management problem. MemForest breaks the sequential bottleneck via parallel chunk extraction, decoupling memory construction into concurrent, independent operations. To further eliminate coarse-grained maintenance, we introduce MemTree, a hierarchical temporal index that organizes memory as time-ordered trees rather than flat global summaries. This design replaces full-state rewrites with localized per-node updates, reducing maintenance cost to the affected tree paths while naturally preserving temporally evolving states. We evaluate MemForest on two long-context memory benchmarks, LongMemEval-S and LoCoMo. On LongMemEval-S, MemForest achieves the best overall performance among stateful baselines, reaching 79.8% pass@1 accuracy while sustaining a memory construction throughput approximately 6x higher than state-of-the-art approaches including EverMemOS.

Complex information needs in real-world search scenarios demand deep reasoning and knowledge synthesis across diverse sources, which traditional retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) pipelines struggle to address effectively. Current reasoning-based approaches suffer from a fundamental limitation: they use a single model to handle both high-level planning and detailed execution, leading to inefficient reasoning and limited scalability. In this paper, we introduce HiRA, a hierarchical framework that separates strategic planning from specialized execution. Our approach decomposes complex search tasks into focused subtasks, assigns each subtask to domain-specific agents equipped with external tools and reasoning capabilities, and coordinates the results through a structured integration mechanism. This separation prevents execution details from disrupting high-level reasoning while enabling the system to leverage specialized expertise for different types of information processing. Experiments on four complex, cross-modal deep search benchmarks demonstrate that HiRA significantly outperforms state-of-the-art RAG and agent-based systems. Our results show improvements in both answer quality and system efficiency, highlighting the effectiveness of decoupled planning and execution for multi-step information seeking tasks. Our code is available at https://github.com/ignorejjj/HiRA.

We present Agent S, an open agentic framework that enables autonomous interaction with computers through a Graphical User Interface (GUI), aimed at transforming human-computer interaction by automating complex, multi-step tasks. Agent S aims to address three key challenges in automating computer tasks: acquiring domain-specific knowledge, planning over long task horizons, and handling dynamic, non-uniform interfaces. To this end, Agent S introduces experience-augmented hierarchical planning, which learns from external knowledge search and internal experience retrieval at multiple levels, facilitating efficient task planning and subtask execution. In addition, it employs an Agent-Computer Interface (ACI) to better elicit the reasoning and control capabilities of GUI agents based on Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs). Evaluation on the OSWorld benchmark shows that Agent S outperforms the baseline by 9.37% on success rate (an 83.6% relative improvement) and achieves a new state-of-the-art. Comprehensive analysis highlights the effectiveness of individual components and provides insights for future improvements. Furthermore, Agent S demonstrates broad generalizability to different operating systems on a newly-released WindowsAgentArena benchmark. Code available at https://github.com/simular-ai/Agent-S.

Large Language Model (LLM)-based agents exhibit significant potential across various domains, operating as interactive systems that process environmental observations to generate executable actions for target tasks. The effectiveness of these agents is significantly influenced by their memory mechanism, which records historical experiences as sequences of action-observation pairs. We categorize memory into two types: cross-trial memory, accumulated across multiple attempts, and in-trial memory (working memory), accumulated within a single attempt. While considerable research has optimized performance through cross-trial memory, the enhancement of agent performance through improved working memory utilization remains underexplored. Instead, existing approaches often involve directly inputting entire historical action-observation pairs into LLMs, leading to redundancy in long-horizon tasks. Inspired by human problem-solving strategies, this paper introduces HiAgent, a framework that leverages subgoals as memory chunks to manage the working memory of LLM-based agents hierarchically. Specifically, HiAgent prompts LLMs to formulate subgoals before generating executable actions and enables LLMs to decide proactively to replace previous subgoals with summarized observations, retaining only the action-observation pairs relevant to the current subgoal. Experimental results across five long-horizon tasks demonstrate that HiAgent achieves a twofold increase in success rate and reduces the average number of steps required by 3.8. Additionally, our analysis shows that HiAgent consistently improves performance across various steps, highlighting its robustness and generalizability. Project Page: https://github.com/HiAgent2024/HiAgent .

Due to the dynamic and unpredictable open-world setting, navigating complex environments in Minecraft poses significant challenges for multi-agent systems. Agents must interact with the environment and coordinate their actions with other agents to achieve common objectives. However, traditional approaches often struggle to efficiently manage inter-agent communication and task distribution, crucial for effective multi-agent navigation. Furthermore, processing and integrating multi-modal information (such as visual, textual, and auditory data) is essential for agents to comprehend their goals and navigate the environment successfully and fully. To address this issue, we design the HAS framework to auto-organize groups of LLM-based agents to complete navigation tasks. In our approach, we devise a hierarchical auto-organizing navigation system, which is characterized by 1) a hierarchical system for multi-agent organization, ensuring centralized planning and decentralized execution; 2) an auto-organizing and intra-communication mechanism, enabling dynamic group adjustment under subtasks; 3) a multi-modal information platform, facilitating multi-modal perception to perform the three navigation tasks with one system. To assess organizational behavior, we design a series of navigation tasks in the Minecraft environment, which includes searching and exploring. We aim to develop embodied organizations that push the boundaries of embodied AI, moving it towards a more human-like organizational structure.

We introduce MMBench-GUI, a hierarchical benchmark for evaluating GUI automation agents across Windows, macOS, Linux, iOS, Android, and Web platforms. It comprises four levels: GUI Content Understanding, Element Grounding, Task Automation, and Task Collaboration, covering essential skills for GUI agents. In addition, we propose a novel Efficiency-Quality Area (EQA) metric to assess GUI agent execution efficiency in online automation scenarios. Through MMBench-GUI, we identify accurate visual grounding as a critical determinant of overall task success, emphasizing the substantial benefits of modular frameworks that integrate specialized grounding modules. Furthermore, to achieve reliable GUI automation, an agent requires strong task planning and cross-platform generalization abilities, with long-context memory, a broad action space, and long-term reasoning playing a critical role. More important, task efficiency remains a critically underexplored dimension, and all models suffer from substantial inefficiencies, with excessive redundant steps even when tasks are ultimately completed. The integration of precise localization, effective planning, and early stopping strategies is indispensable to enable truly efficient and scalable GUI automation. Our benchmark code, evaluation data, and running environment will be publicly available at https://github.com/open-compass/MMBench-GUI.

Computer use agents automate digital tasks by directly interacting with graphical user interfaces (GUIs) on computers and mobile devices, offering significant potential to enhance human productivity by completing an open-ended space of user queries. However, current agents face significant challenges: imprecise grounding of GUI elements, difficulties with long-horizon task planning, and performance bottlenecks from relying on single generalist models for diverse cognitive tasks. To this end, we introduce Agent S2, a novel compositional framework that delegates cognitive responsibilities across various generalist and specialist models. We propose a novel Mixture-of-Grounding technique to achieve precise GUI localization and introduce Proactive Hierarchical Planning, dynamically refining action plans at multiple temporal scales in response to evolving observations. Evaluations demonstrate that Agent S2 establishes new state-of-the-art (SOTA) performance on three prominent computer use benchmarks. Specifically, Agent S2 achieves 18.9% and 32.7% relative improvements over leading baseline agents such as Claude Computer Use and UI-TARS on the OSWorld 15-step and 50-step evaluation. Moreover, Agent S2 generalizes effectively to other operating systems and applications, surpassing previous best methods by 52.8% on WindowsAgentArena and by 16.52% on AndroidWorld relatively. Code available at https://github.com/simular-ai/Agent-S.

Real-world computer-use tasks often span multiple applications and devices, requiring agents to coordinate heterogeneous environments under dynamic runtime failures. Existing multi-device agent systems support task decomposition and cross-device assignment, but recovery remains largely coarse-grained: when execution fails, they typically retry the same strategy, reassign the subtask, or revise the global plan, without systematically modeling the device-local strategy space. This limits their ability to distinguish failures that can be repaired within the current device from those that require cross-device replanning. We propose H-RePlan, a hierarchical replanning framework for multi-device agents with unified API--CLI--GUI execution. H-RePlan equips each device with interchangeable execution strategies and separates device-local strategy recovery from orchestrator-level global replanning through a compact cross-layer failure abstraction. To evaluate this capability, we introduce HeraBench, a fault-injected benchmark that constructs cross-device workflows over Linux and Android devices and injects strategy- and device-level failures. Experiments show that H-RePlan substantially outperforms single-strategy and coarse-grained multi-device baselines, achieving higher completion, instruction adherence, and perfect-pass rates while reducing the token cost required for reliable end-to-end success. These results demonstrate that scope-aware hierarchical recovery is essential for robust multi-device agent execution.

The Contract Net Protocol (1980) introduced coordination through contracts in multi-agent systems. Modern agent protocols standardize connectivity and interoperability; yet, none provide formal, resource governance-normative mechanisms to bound how much agents may consume or how long they may operate. We introduce Agent Contracts, a formal framework that extends the contract metaphor from task allocation to resource-bounded execution. An Agent Contract unifies input/output specifications, multi-dimensional resource constraints, temporal boundaries, and success criteria into a coherent governance mechanism with explicit lifecycle semantics. For multi-agent coordination, we establish conservation laws ensuring delegated budgets respect parent constraints, enabling hierarchical coordination through contract delegation. Empirical validation across four experiments demonstrates 90% token reduction with 525x lower variance in iterative workflows, zero conservation violations in multi-agent delegation, and measurable quality-resource tradeoffs through contract modes. Agent Contracts provide formal foundations for predictable, auditable, and resource-bounded autonomous AI deployment.

The advancement in Large Language Models has driven the creation of complex agentic systems, such as Deep Research Agents (DRAs), to overcome the limitations of static Retrieval Augmented Generation (RAG) pipelines in handling complex, multi-turn research tasks. This paper introduces the Static Deep Research Agent (Static-DRA), a novel solution built upon a configurable and hierarchical Tree-based static workflow. The core contribution is the integration of two user-tunable parameters, Depth and Breadth, which provide granular control over the research intensity. This design allows end-users to consciously balance the desired quality and comprehensiveness of the research report against the associated computational cost of Large Language Model (LLM) interactions. The agent's architecture, comprising Supervisor, Independent, and Worker agents, facilitates effective multi-hop information retrieval and parallel sub-topic investigation. We evaluate the Static-DRA against the established DeepResearch Bench using the RACE (Reference-based Adaptive Criteria-driven Evaluation) framework. Configured with a depth of 2 and a breadth of 5, and powered by the gemini-2.5-pro model, the agent achieved an overall score of 34.72. Our experiments validate that increasing the configured Depth and Breadth parameters results in a more in-depth research process and a correspondingly higher evaluation score. The Static-DRA offers a pragmatic and resource-aware solution, empowering users with transparent control over the deep research process. The entire source code, outputs and benchmark results are open-sourced at https://github.com/SauravP97/Static-Deep-Research/

Recently, multi-time-scale agent architectures have extended the ubiquitous single-loop paradigm by introducing temporal hierarchies with distinct cognitive layers. While yielding substantial performance gains, this diversification fundamentally compromises the coordination stability intrinsic to unified agent systems, which causes severe inter-layer conflicts, unbounded error propagation, and restricted scalability. To address these challenges, we propose Constrained Temporal Hierarchical Architecture (CTHA), a general framework that projects the inter-layer communication space onto structured manifolds to restore coordination stability, while incorporating principled arbitration mechanisms to ensure coherent decision-making. Specifically, CTHA enforces three key constraints: (1) Message Contract Constraints that formalize information flow between layers via typed summary, plan, and policy packets; (2) Authority Manifold Constraints that bound each layer's decision space according to its temporal scope; and (3) Arbiter Resolution Constraints that guarantee conflict-free composition of multi-layer decisions. Empirical experiments demonstrate that CTHA is effective for complex task execution at scale, offering 47% reduction in failure cascades, 2.3x improvement in sample efficiency, and superior scalability compared to unconstrained hierarchical baselines. We anticipate that CTHA, as a principled extension of temporal hierarchies, will contribute to a deeper understanding of multi-agent coordination and suggest promising directions for the evolution of robust autonomous systems.

Large language model (LLM)-powered multi-agent systems (MAS) have demonstrated cognitive and execution capabilities that far exceed those of single LLM agents, yet their capacity for self-evolution remains hampered by underdeveloped memory architectures. Upon close inspection, we are alarmed to discover that prevailing MAS memory mechanisms (1) are overly simplistic, completely disregarding the nuanced inter-agent collaboration trajectories, and (2) lack cross-trial and agent-specific customization, in stark contrast to the expressive memory developed for single agents. To bridge this gap, we introduce G-Memory, a hierarchical, agentic memory system for MAS inspired by organizational memory theory, which manages the lengthy MAS interaction via a three-tier graph hierarchy: insight, query, and interaction graphs. Upon receiving a new user query, G-Memory performs bi-directional memory traversal to retrieve both high-level, generalizable insights that enable the system to leverage cross-trial knowledge, and fine-grained, condensed interaction trajectories that compactly encode prior collaboration experiences. Upon task execution, the entire hierarchy evolves by assimilating new collaborative trajectories, nurturing the progressive evolution of agent teams. Extensive experiments across five benchmarks, three LLM backbones, and three popular MAS frameworks demonstrate that G-Memory improves success rates in embodied action and accuracy in knowledge QA by up to 20.89% and 10.12%, respectively, without any modifications to the original frameworks. Our codes are available at https://github.com/bingreeky/GMemory.

Recent advancements in LLM-based multi-agent (LLM-MA) systems have shown promise, yet significant challenges remain in managing communication and refinement when agents collaborate on complex tasks. In this paper, we propose Talk Structurally, Act Hierarchically (TalkHier), a novel framework that introduces a structured communication protocol for context-rich exchanges and a hierarchical refinement system to address issues such as incorrect outputs, falsehoods, and biases. TalkHier surpasses various types of SoTA, including inference scaling model (OpenAI-o1), open-source multi-agent models (e.g., AgentVerse), and majority voting strategies on current LLM and single-agent baselines (e.g., ReAct, GPT4o), across diverse tasks, including open-domain question answering, domain-specific selective questioning, and practical advertisement text generation. These results highlight its potential to set a new standard for LLM-MA systems, paving the way for more effective, adaptable, and collaborative multi-agent frameworks. The code is available https://github.com/sony/talkhier.

Large Language Models (LLMs) are increasingly used as autonomous agents for multi-step tasks. However, most existing frameworks fail to maintain a structured understanding of the task state, often relying on linear prompt concatenation or shallow memory buffers. This leads to brittle performance, frequent hallucinations, and poor long-range coherence. In this work, we propose the Task Memory Engine (TME), a lightweight and structured memory module that tracks task execution using a hierarchical Task Memory Tree (TMT). Each node in the tree corresponds to a task step, storing relevant input, output, status, and sub-task relationships. We introduce a prompt synthesis method that dynamically generates LLM prompts based on the active node path, significantly improving execution consistency and contextual grounding. Through case studies and comparative experiments on multi-step agent tasks, we demonstrate that TME leads to better task completion accuracy and more interpretable behavior with minimal implementation overhead. A reference implementation of the core TME components is available at https://github.com/biubiutomato/TME-Agent, including basic examples and structured memory integration. While the current implementation uses a tree-based structure, TME is designed to be graph-aware, supporting reusable substeps, converging task paths, and shared dependencies. This lays the groundwork for future DAG-based memory architectures.

Large Language Model (LLM)-powered multi-agent systems (MAS) have rapidly advanced collaborative reasoning, tool use, and role-specialized coordination in complex tasks. However, reliability-critical deployment remains hindered by a systemic failure mode: hierarchical compliance under instruction conflicts (system-user, peer-peer), where agents misprioritize system-level rules in the presence of competing demands. Moreover, widely used macro-level metrics (e.g., pass@k) obscure these micro-level violations and offer little actionable guidance for remedy. In this work, we present a full-stack, three-stage framework: (1) Diagnose - Contextualized Role Adherence Score (CRAS), a query-wise, context-aware scoring metric that decomposes role adherence into four measurable dimensions; (2) Localize - attention drift analysis revealing that instruction conflicts are resolved by attention heads that are largely concentrated in middle layers; (3) Align - Surgical Alignment of Instruction Layers (SAIL), which installs LoRA only on the localized focal layers and optimizes a token-weighted DPO-style preference objective that credits tokens by their focal attentional contribution. Across standard benchmarks and MAS frameworks, our surgical approach improves instruction hierarchy compliance (e.g., +5.60% with AutoGen on MedQA) without full-model finetuning.

Existing long-form video generation frameworks lack automated planning, requiring manual input for storylines, scenes, cinematography, and character interactions, resulting in high costs and inefficiencies. To address these challenges, we present MovieAgent, an automated movie generation via multi-agent Chain of Thought (CoT) planning. MovieAgent offers two key advantages: 1) We firstly explore and define the paradigm of automated movie/long-video generation. Given a script and character bank, our MovieAgent can generates multi-scene, multi-shot long-form videos with a coherent narrative, while ensuring character consistency, synchronized subtitles, and stable audio throughout the film. 2) MovieAgent introduces a hierarchical CoT-based reasoning process to automatically structure scenes, camera settings, and cinematography, significantly reducing human effort. By employing multiple LLM agents to simulate the roles of a director, screenwriter, storyboard artist, and location manager, MovieAgent streamlines the production pipeline. Experiments demonstrate that MovieAgent achieves new state-of-the-art results in script faithfulness, character consistency, and narrative coherence. Our hierarchical framework takes a step forward and provides new insights into fully automated movie generation. The code and project website are available at: https://github.com/showlab/MovieAgent and https://weijiawu.github.io/MovieAgent.

Achieving human-level competitive intelligence and physical agility in humanoid robots remains a major challenge, particularly in contact-rich and highly dynamic tasks such as boxing. While Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL) offers a principled framework for strategic interaction, its direct application to humanoid control is hindered by high-dimensional contact dynamics and the absence of strong physical motion priors. We propose RoboStriker, a hierarchical three-stage framework that enables fully autonomous humanoid boxing by decoupling high-level strategic reasoning from low-level physical execution. The framework first learns a comprehensive repertoire of boxing skills by training a single-agent motion tracker on human motion capture data. These skills are subsequently distilled into a structured latent manifold, regularized by projecting the Gaussian-parameterized distribution onto a unit hypersphere. This topological constraint effectively confines exploration to the subspace of physically plausible motions. In the final stage, we introduce Latent-Space Neural Fictitious Self-Play (LS-NFSP), where competing agents learn competitive tactics by interacting within the latent action space rather than the raw motor space, significantly stabilizing multi-agent training. Experimental results demonstrate that RoboStriker achieves superior competitive performance in simulation and exhibits sim-to-real transfer. Our website is available at RoboStriker.

Multi-agent Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG), wherein each agent takes on a specific role, supports hard queries that require multiple steps and sources, or complex reasoning. Existing approaches, however, rely on static agent behaviors and fixed orchestration strategies, leading to brittle performance on diverse, multi-hop tasks. We identify two key limitations: the lack of continuously adaptive orchestration mechanisms and the absence of behavior-level learning for individual agents. To this end, we propose HERA, a hierarchical framework that jointly evolves multi-agent orchestration and role-specific agent prompts. At the global level, HERA optimizes query-specific agent topologies through reward-guided sampling and experience accumulation. At the local level, Role-Aware Prompt Evolution refines agent behaviors via credit assignment and dual-axes adaptation along operational and behavioral principles, enabling targeted, role-conditioned improvements. On six knowledge-intensive benchmarks, HERA achieves an average improvement of 38.69\% over recent baselines while maintaining robust generalization and token efficiency. Topological analyses reveal emergent self-organization, where sparse exploration yields compact, high-utility multi-agent networks, demonstrating both efficient coordination and robust reasoning.

With the power of large language models (LLMs), open-ended embodied agents can flexibly understand human instructions, generate interpretable guidance strategies, and output executable actions. Nowadays, Multi-modal Language Models~(MLMs) integrate multi-modal signals into LLMs, further bringing richer perception to entity agents and allowing embodied agents to perceive world-understanding tasks more delicately. However, existing works: 1) operate independently by agents, each containing multiple LLMs, from perception to action, resulting in gaps between complex tasks and execution; 2) train MLMs on static data, struggling with dynamics in open-ended scenarios; 3) input prior knowledge directly as prompts, suppressing application flexibility. We propose STEVE-2, a hierarchical knowledge distillation framework for open-ended embodied tasks, characterized by 1) a hierarchical system for multi-granular task division, 2) a mirrored distillation method for parallel simulation data, and 3) an extra expert model for bringing additional knowledge into parallel simulation. After distillation, embodied agents can complete complex, open-ended tasks without additional expert guidance, utilizing the performance and knowledge of a versatile MLM. Extensive evaluations on navigation and creation tasks highlight the superior performance of STEVE-2 in open-ended tasks, with 1.4 times - 7.3 times in performance.

A broad use case of large language models (LLMs) is in goal-directed decision-making tasks (or "agent" tasks), where an LLM needs to not just generate completions for a given prompt, but rather make intelligent decisions over a multi-turn interaction to accomplish a task (e.g., when interacting with the web, using tools, or providing customer support). Reinforcement learning (RL) provides a general paradigm to address such agent tasks, but current RL methods for LLMs largely focus on optimizing single-turn rewards. By construction, most single-turn RL methods cannot endow LLMs with the ability to intelligently seek information over multiple turns, perform credit assignment, or reason about their past actions -- all of which are critical in agent tasks. This raises the question: how can we design effective and efficient multi-turn RL algorithms for LLMs? In this paper, we develop a framework for building multi-turn RL algorithms for fine-tuning LLMs, that preserves the flexibility of existing single-turn RL methods for LLMs (e.g., proximal policy optimization), while accommodating multiple turns, long horizons, and delayed rewards effectively. To do this, our framework adopts a hierarchical RL approach and runs two RL algorithms in parallel: a high-level off-policy value-based RL algorithm to aggregate reward over utterances, and a low-level RL algorithm that utilizes this high-level value function to train a token policy within each utterance or turn. Our hierarchical framework, Actor-Critic Framework with a Hierarchical Structure (ArCHer), can also give rise to other RL methods. Empirically, we find that ArCHer significantly improves efficiency and performance on agent tasks, attaining a sample efficiency of about 100x over existing methods, while also improving with larger model capacity (upto the 7 billion scale that we tested on).

Developing intelligent agents for long-term cooperation in dynamic open-world scenarios is a major challenge in multi-agent systems. Traditional Multi-agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL) frameworks like centralized training decentralized execution (CTDE) struggle with scalability and flexibility. They require centralized long-term planning, which is difficult without custom reward functions, and face challenges in processing multi-modal data. CTDE approaches also assume fixed cooperation strategies, making them impractical in dynamic environments where agents need to adapt and plan independently. To address decentralized multi-agent cooperation, we propose Decentralized Adaptive Knowledge Graph Memory and Structured Communication System (DAMCS) in a novel Multi-agent Crafter environment. Our generative agents, powered by Large Language Models (LLMs), are more scalable than traditional MARL agents by leveraging external knowledge and language for long-term planning and reasoning. Instead of fully sharing information from all past experiences, DAMCS introduces a multi-modal memory system organized as a hierarchical knowledge graph and a structured communication protocol to optimize agent cooperation. This allows agents to reason from past interactions and share relevant information efficiently. Experiments on novel multi-agent open-world tasks show that DAMCS outperforms both MARL and LLM baselines in task efficiency and collaboration. Compared to single-agent scenarios, the two-agent scenario achieves the same goal with 63% fewer steps, and the six-agent scenario with 74% fewer steps, highlighting the importance of adaptive memory and structured communication in achieving long-term goals. We publicly release our project at: https://happyeureka.github.io/damcs.

The evolution of Large Language Model (LLM) agents towards System~2 reasoning, characterized by deliberative, high-precision problem-solving, requires maintaining rigorous logical integrity over extended horizons. However, prevalent memory preprocessing paradigms suffer from destructive de-contextualization. By compressing complex sequential dependencies into pre-defined structures (e.g., embeddings or graphs), these methods sever the contextual integrity essential for deep reasoning. To address this, we propose E-mem, a framework shifting from Memory Preprocessing to Episodic Context Reconstruction. Inspired by biological engrams, E-mem employs a heterogeneous hierarchical architecture where multiple assistant agents maintain uncompressed memory contexts, while a central master agent orchestrates global planning. Unlike passive retrieval, our mechanism empowers assistants to locally reason within activated segments, extracting context-aware evidence before aggregation. Evaluations on the LoCoMo benchmark demonstrate that E-mem achieves over 54\% F1, surpassing the state-of-the-art GAM by 7.75\%, while reducing token cost by over 70\%.

Real-world spatial intelligence requires reasoning over a continuous and evolving 3D world, yet existing VLMs and tool-augmented agents largely remain tied to static, stateless inference from isolated visual observations. We introduce \textsc{S-Agent}, a spatial tool-use agentic paradigm for understanding and reasoning over continuous multi-view images and videos. By formulating spatial reasoning as spatio-temporal evidence accumulation rather than isolated frame-level prediction, S-Agent reshapes spatial perception into scene-centric understanding beyond frame-centric recognition. Specifically, S-Agent casts the VLM as a semantic planner that decides what evidence is needed, while a hierarchy of spatial tools and experts grounds objects in 2D, lifts them into 3D geometric evidence, and aggregates this evidence into high-level spatial knowledge (e.g., counting, measurement, orientation, and relative position). Additionally, a temporal memory mechanism, including Scene Memory for maintaining the evolving scene state and Agent Memory for accumulating reasoning context, enables evidence integration across frames and reasoning steps. Comprehensive experiments on multi-view and video spatial reasoning benchmarks show that S-Agent consistently improves both open-source and closed-source VLMs in a training-free manner. Beyond inference-time augmentation, supervised fine-tuning (SFT) on S-Agent-generated spatial trajectories S-300K yields S-Agent-8B, a compact spatial agent that significantly surpasses similar-scale baselines (e.g., Qwen3-VL-8B) and performs comparably to advanced closed-source models (e.g., GPT-5.4 and Gemini 3).

Large language models (LLMs) have shown strong reasoning and coding capabilities, yet they struggle to generalize to real-world software engineering (SWE) problems that are long-horizon and out of distribution. Existing systems often rely on a single agent to handle the entire workflow-interpreting issues, navigating large codebases, and implementing fixes-within one reasoning chain. Such monolithic designs force the model to retain irrelevant context, leading to spurious correlations and poor generalization. Motivated by how human engineers decompose complex problems, we propose structuring SWE agents as orchestrators coordinating specialized sub-agents for sub-tasks such as localization, editing, and validation. The challenge lies in discovering effective hierarchies automatically: as the number of sub-agents grows, the search space becomes combinatorial, and it is difficult to attribute credit to individual sub-agents within a team. We address these challenges by formulating hierarchy discovery as a multi-armed bandit (MAB) problem, where each arm represents a candidate sub-agent and the reward measures its helpfulness when collaborating with others. This framework, termed Bandit Optimization for Agent Design (BOAD), enables efficient exploration of sub-agent designs under limited evaluation budgets. On SWE-bench-Verified, BOAD outperforms single-agent and manually designed multi-agent systems. On SWE-bench-Live, featuring more recent and out-of-distribution issues, our 36B system ranks second on the leaderboard at the time of evaluation, surpassing larger models such as GPT-4 and Claude. These results demonstrate that automatically discovered hierarchical multi-agent systems significantly improve generalization on challenging long-horizon SWE tasks. Code is available at https://github.com/iamxjy/BOAD-SWE-Agent.

Learning cooperative multi-agent policy from offline multi-task data that can generalize to unseen tasks with varying numbers of agents and targets is an attractive problem in many scenarios. Although aggregating general behavior patterns among multiple tasks as skills to improve policy transfer is a promising approach, two primary challenges hinder the further advancement of skill learning in offline multi-task MARL. Firstly, extracting general cooperative behaviors from various action sequences as common skills lacks bringing cooperative temporal knowledge into them. Secondly, existing works only involve common skills and can not adaptively choose independent knowledge as task-specific skills in each task for fine-grained action execution. To tackle these challenges, we propose Hierarchical and Separate Skill Discovery (HiSSD), a novel approach for generalizable offline multi-task MARL through skill learning. HiSSD leverages a hierarchical framework that jointly learns common and task-specific skills. The common skills learn cooperative temporal knowledge and enable in-sample exploitation for offline multi-task MARL. The task-specific skills represent the priors of each task and achieve a task-guided fine-grained action execution. To verify the advancement of our method, we conduct experiments on multi-agent MuJoCo and SMAC benchmarks. After training the policy using HiSSD on offline multi-task data, the empirical results show that HiSSD assigns effective cooperative behaviors and obtains superior performance in unseen tasks.

Existing LLMs exhibit remarkable performance on various NLP tasks, but still struggle with complex real-world tasks, even equipped with advanced strategies like CoT and ReAct. In this work, we propose the CoAct framework, which transfers the hierarchical planning and collaboration patterns in human society to LLM systems. Specifically, our CoAct framework involves two agents: (1) A global planning agent, to comprehend the problem scope, formulate macro-level plans and provide detailed sub-task descriptions to local execution agents, which serves as the initial rendition of a global plan. (2) A local execution agent, to operate within the multi-tier task execution structure, focusing on detailed execution and implementation of specific tasks within the global plan. Experimental results on the WebArena benchmark show that CoAct can re-arrange the process trajectory when facing failures, and achieves superior performance over baseline methods on long-horizon web tasks. Code is available at https://github.com/xmhou2002/CoAct.

We present Agent Lightning, a flexible and extensible framework that enables Reinforcement Learning (RL)-based training of Large Language Models (LLMs) for any AI agent. Unlike existing methods that tightly couple RL training with agent or rely on sequence concatenation with masking, Agent Lightning achieves complete decoupling between agent execution and training, allowing seamless integration with existing agents developed via diverse ways (e.g., using frameworks like LangChain, OpenAI Agents SDK, AutoGen, and building from scratch) with almost ZERO code modifications. By formulating agent execution as Markov decision process, we define an unified data interface and propose a hierarchical RL algorithm, LightningRL, which contains a credit assignment module, allowing us to decompose trajectories generated by ANY agents into training transition. This enables RL to handle complex interaction logic, such as multi-agent scenarios and dynamic workflows. For the system design, we introduce a Training-Agent Disaggregation architecture, and brings agent observability frameworks into agent runtime, providing a standardized agent finetuning interface. Experiments across text-to-SQL, retrieval-augmented generation, and math tool-use tasks demonstrate stable, continuous improvements, showcasing the framework's potential for real-world agent training and deployment.

As language agents tackle increasingly complex tasks, they struggle with effective error correction and experience reuse across domains. We introduce Agent KB, a hierarchical experience framework that enables complex agentic problem solving via a novel Reason-Retrieve-Refine pipeline. Agent KB addresses a core limitation: agents traditionally cannot learn from each other's experiences. By capturing both high-level strategies and detailed execution logs, Agent KB creates a shared knowledge base that enables cross-agent knowledge transfer. Evaluated on the GAIA benchmark, Agent KB improves success rates by up to 16.28 percentage points. On the most challenging tasks, Claude-3 improves from 38.46% to 57.69%, while GPT-4 improves from 53.49% to 73.26% on intermediate tasks. On SWE-bench code repair, Agent KB enables Claude-3 to improve from 41.33% to 53.33%. Our results suggest that Agent KB provides a modular, framework-agnostic infrastructure for enabling agents to learn from past experiences and generalize successful strategies to new tasks.

We study instruction-based image editing under professional workflows and identify three persistent challenges: (i) editors often over-edit, modifying content beyond the user's intent; (ii) existing models are largely single-turn, while multi-turn edits can alter object faithfulness; and (iii) evaluation at around 1K resolution is misaligned with real workflows that often operate on ultra high-definition images (e.g., 4K). We propose Agent Banana, a hierarchical agentic planner-executor framework for high-fidelity, object-aware, deliberative editing. Agent Banana introduces two key mechanisms: (1) Context Folding, which compresses long interaction histories into structured memory for stable long-horizon control; and (2) Image Layer Decomposition, which performs localized layer-based edits to preserve non-target regions while enabling native-resolution outputs. To support rigorous evaluation, we build HDD-Bench, a high-definition, dialogue-based benchmark featuring verifiable stepwise targets and native 4K images (11.8M pixels) for diagnosing long-horizon failures. On HDD-Bench, Agent Banana achieves the best multi-turn consistency and background fidelity (e.g., IC 0.871, SSIM-OM 0.84, LPIPS-OM 0.12) while remaining competitive on instruction following, and also attains strong performance on standard single-turn editing benchmarks. We hope this work advances reliable, professional-grade agentic image editing and its integration into real workflows.

We propose a hierarchical entity-centric framework for offline Goal-Conditioned Reinforcement Learning (GCRL) that combines subgoal decomposition with factored structure to solve long-horizon tasks in domains with multiple entities. Achieving long-horizon goals in complex environments remains a core challenge in Reinforcement Learning (RL). Domains with multiple entities are particularly difficult due to their combinatorial complexity. GCRL facilitates generalization across goals and the use of subgoal structure, but struggles with high-dimensional observations and combinatorial state-spaces, especially under sparse reward. We employ a two-level hierarchy composed of a value-based GCRL agent and a factored subgoal-generating conditional diffusion model. The RL agent and subgoal generator are trained independently and composed post hoc through selective subgoal generation based on the value function, making the approach modular and compatible with existing GCRL algorithms. We introduce new variations to benchmark tasks that highlight the challenges of multi-entity domains, and show that our method consistently boosts performance of the underlying RL agent on image-based long-horizon tasks with sparse rewards, achieving over 150% higher success rates on the hardest task in our suite and generalizing to increasing horizons and numbers of entities. Rollout videos are provided at: https://sites.google.com/view/hecrl

Scientific knowledge is growing rapidly, making it challenging to track progress and high-level conceptual links across broad disciplines. While existing tools like citation networks and search engines make it easy to access a few related papers, they fundamentally lack the flexible abstraction needed to represent the density of activity in various scientific subfields. We motivate SCIENCE HIERARCHOGRAPHY, the goal of organizing scientific literature into a high-quality hierarchical structure that allows for the categorization of scientific work across varying levels of abstraction, from very broad fields to very specific studies. Such a representation can provide insights into which fields are well-explored and which are under-explored. To achieve the goals of SCIENCE HIERARCHOGRAPHY, we develop a range of algorithms. Our primary approach combines fast embedding-based clustering with LLM-based prompting to balance the computational efficiency of embedding methods with the semantic precision offered by LLM prompting. We demonstrate that this approach offers the best trade-off between quality and speed compared to methods that heavily rely on LLM prompting, such as iterative tree construction with LLMs. To better reflect the interdisciplinary and multifaceted nature of research papers, our hierarchy captures multiple dimensions of categorization beyond simple topic labels. We evaluate the utility of our framework by assessing how effectively an LLM-based agent can locate target papers using the hierarchy. Results show that this structured approach enhances interpretability, supports trend discovery, and offers an alternative pathway for exploring scientific literature beyond traditional search methods. Code, data and demo: https://github.com/JHU-CLSP/science-hierarchography{https://github.com/JHU-CLSP/science-hierarchography}

This technical brief introduces Deep Agent, an advanced autonomous AI system designed to manage complex multi-phase tasks through a novel hierarchical task management architecture. The system's foundation is built on our Hierarchical Task DAG (HTDAG) framework, which dynamically decomposes high-level objectives into manageable sub-tasks while rigorously maintaining dependencies and execution coherence. Deep Agent advances beyond traditional agent systems through three key innovations: First, it implements a recursive two-stage planner-executor architecture that enables continuous task refinement and adaptation as circumstances change. Second, it features an Autonomous API & Tool Creation (AATC) system that automatically generates reusable components from UI interactions, substantially reducing operational costs for similar tasks. Third, it incorporates Prompt Tweaking Engine and Autonomous Prompt Feedback Learning components that optimize Large Language Model prompts for specific scenarios, enhancing both inference accuracy and operational stability. These components are integrated to form a service infrastructure that manages user contexts, handles complex task dependencies, and orchestrates end-to-end agentic workflow execution. Through this sophisticated architecture, Deep Agent establishes a novel paradigm in self-governing AI systems, demonstrating robust capability to independently handle intricate, multi-step tasks while maintaining consistent efficiency and reliability through continuous self-optimization.

Large Language Models (LLMs) exhibit remarkable capabilities in the hierarchical decomposition of complex tasks through semantic reasoning. However, their application in embodied systems faces challenges in ensuring reliable execution of subtask sequences and achieving one-shot success in long-term task completion. To address these limitations in dynamic environments, we propose Closed-Loop Embodied Agent (CLEA) -- a novel architecture incorporating four specialized open-source LLMs with functional decoupling for closed-loop task management. The framework features two core innovations: (1) Interactive task planner that dynamically generates executable subtasks based on the environmental memory, and (2) Multimodal execution critic employing an evaluation framework to conduct a probabilistic assessment of action feasibility, triggering hierarchical re-planning mechanisms when environmental perturbations exceed preset thresholds. To validate CLEA's effectiveness, we conduct experiments in a real environment with manipulable objects, using two heterogeneous robots for object search, manipulation, and search-manipulation integration tasks. Across 12 task trials, CLEA outperforms the baseline model, achieving a 67.3% improvement in success rate and a 52.8% increase in task completion rate. These results demonstrate that CLEA significantly enhances the robustness of task planning and execution in dynamic environments.

The rapid proliferation of Claude agent skills has raised the central question of how to effectively leverage, manage, and scale the agent skill ecosystem. In this paper, we propose AgentSkillOS, the first principled framework for skill selection, orchestration, and ecosystem-level management. AgentSkillOS comprises two stages: (i) Manage Skills, which organizes skills into a capability tree via node-level recursive categorization for efficient discovery; and (ii) Solve Tasks, which retrieves, orchestrates, and executes multiple skills through DAG-based pipelines. To evaluate the agent's ability to invoke skills, we construct a benchmark of 30 artifact-rich tasks across five categories: data computation, document creation, motion video, visual design, and web interaction. We assess the quality of task outputs using LLM-based pairwise evaluation, and the results are aggregated via a Bradley-Terry model to produce unified quality scores. Experiments across three skill ecosystem scales (200 to 200K skills) show that tree-based retrieval effectively approximates oracle skill selection, and that DAG-based orchestration substantially outperforms native flat invocation even when given the identical skill set. Our findings confirm that structured composition is the key to unlocking skill potential. Our GitHub repository is available at:https://github.com/ynulihao/AgentSkillOS.

AI agents are increasingly deployed in production, yet their security evaluations remain bottlenecked by manual red-teaming or static benchmarks that fail to model adaptive, multi-turn adversaries. We propose NAAMSE, an evolutionary framework that reframes agent security evaluation as a feedback-driven optimization problem. Our system employs a single autonomous agent that orchestrates a lifecycle of genetic prompt mutation, hierarchical corpus exploration, and asymmetric behavioral scoring. By using model responses as a fitness signal, the framework iteratively compounds effective attack strategies while simultaneously ensuring "benign-use correctness", preventing the degenerate security of blanket refusal. Our experiments on Gemini 2.5 Flash demonstrate that evolutionary mutation systematically amplifies vulnerabilities missed by one-shot methods, with controlled ablations revealing that the synergy between exploration and targeted mutation uncovers high-severity failure modes. We show that this adaptive approach provides a more realistic and scalable assessment of agent robustness in the face of evolving threats. The code for NAAMSE is open source and available at https://github.com/HASHIRU-AI/NAAMSE.

Recent Vision-Language Models (VLMs) exhibit strong perceptual reasoning abilities, yet they often struggle to adapt efficiently when encountering novel tasks at test time. In contrast, humans leverage the metacognitive model with memory, enabling continuous strategy refinement through metacognitive control when faced with new challenges. To bridge this gap, we propose metacognitive test-time reasoning (MCTR), a framework that equips models with the ability to learn, adapt, and improve during test time through metacognitive self-updating. Inspired by the dual structure of human metacognition, MCTR comprises meta-level and object-level VLM reasoning modules, each equipped with dedicated memory systems for hierarchical adaptive reasoning. Specifically, MCTR consists of (1) a meta-reasoning module which incrementally builds a structured memory by discovering and storing task-relevant rules, environmental patterns, and action-outcome relationships from test-time observations as natural language descriptions; and (2) an action-reasoning module that determines optimal actions through context-aware perception and strategic reasoning by dynamically retrieving and integrating knowledge from memory. The action-reasoning module continuously updates its policy through proposed metacognitive test-time reinforcement learning, adapting as knowledge memory evolves. We evaluate MCTR on 45 Atari games (33 seen, 12 unseen). MCTR demonstrates robust test-time adaptation, achieving 9/12 top-1 results on unseen games compared with baselines. Analyses through ablations, learning dynamics, and case studies reveal the complementary contributions of both components and show meta-reasoning evolving toward human-like adaptation strategies.

Large Language Models (LLMs), prominently highlighted by the recent evolution in the Generative Pre-trained Transformers (GPT) series, have displayed significant prowess across various domains, such as aiding in healthcare diagnostics and curating analytical business reports. The efficacy of GPTs lies in their ability to decode human instructions, achieved through comprehensively processing historical inputs as an entirety within their memory system. Yet, the memory processing of GPTs does not precisely emulate the hierarchical nature of human memory. This can result in LLMs struggling to prioritize immediate and critical tasks efficiently. To bridge this gap, we introduce an innovative LLM multi-agent framework endowed with layered memories. We assert that this framework is well-suited for stock and fund trading, where the extraction of highly relevant insights from hierarchical financial data is imperative to inform trading decisions. Within this framework, one agent organizes memory into three distinct layers, each governed by a custom decay mechanism, aligning more closely with human cognitive processes. Agents can also engage in inter-agent debate. In financial trading contexts, LLMs serve as the decision core for trading agents, leveraging their layered memory system to integrate multi-source historical actions and market insights. This equips them to navigate financial changes, formulate strategies, and debate with peer agents about investment decisions. Another standout feature of our approach is to equip agents with individualized trading traits, enhancing memory diversity and decision robustness. These sophisticated designs boost the system's responsiveness to historical trades and real-time market signals, ensuring superior automated trading accuracy.

The field of Artificial Intelligence is undergoing a transition from Generative AI -- probabilistic generation of text and images -- to Agentic AI, in which autonomous systems execute actions within external environments on behalf of users. This transition exposes a fundamental architectural mismatch: Large Language Models (LLMs) produce stochastic, unstructured outputs, whereas the backend infrastructure they must control -- databases, APIs, cloud services -- requires deterministic, schema-conformant inputs. The present paper describes the Auton Agentic AI Framework, a principled architecture for standardizing the creation, execution, and governance of autonomous agent systems. The framework is organized around a strict separation between the Cognitive Blueprint, a declarative, language-agnostic specification of agent identity and capabilities, and the Runtime Engine, the platform-specific execution substrate that instantiates and runs the agent. This separation enables cross-language portability, formal auditability, and modular tool integration via the Model Context Protocol (MCP). The paper formalizes the agent execution model as an augmented Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) with a latent reasoning space, introduces a hierarchical memory consolidation architecture inspired by biological episodic memory systems, defines a constraint manifold formalism for safety enforcement via policy projection rather than post-hoc filtering, presents a three-level self-evolution framework spanning in-context adaptation through reinforcement learning, and describes runtime optimizations -- including parallel graph execution, speculative inference, and dynamic context pruning -- that reduce end-to-end latency for multi-step agent workflows.