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# Erlang Data Structures and Storage

## Introduction

[<- Back to index](../index.livemd#livebook-files)

<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

With Erlang, and by extension Elixir, being functional programming languages,
we can expect that the data structures that we have access to natively on the
BEAM are immutable are cannot be altered whenever they are passed to a function.
As a construct, immutability provides some amazing guarantees (especially in a team
environment). It means that we can rest easy knowing that the data that we pass from
function to function is not being changed out from under us and unintended side-effects
are not something that we generally need to worry about.

<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

With that being said, Erlang and OTP ship with a wide array of immutable
data structures right out of the box! This Livebook notebook serves as a reference
so that you can see how you can use the built-in Erlang data structures right from
Elixir!

## :queue Module

Queues are one of the most basic (yet powerful) data structures in computer
science and have applicability in a wide range of scenarios. Simply put, a
queue defines a collection of items that are processed in a first-in-first-out
fashion. In other words, an element `A` that was put into the queue before element `B`,
will be processed prior to element `B`.

<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

Let's see how we can use the `:queue` module right from Elixir. For starters, you'll create
a new queue and add some elements to it:

```elixir
# Create a new queue
my_queue = :queue.new()

# Add an element to the queue
my_queue = :queue.in(1, my_queue)

# Add another element to the queue
my_queue = :queue.in(2, my_queue)

# Convert the queue to a list to see what is in it
:queue.to_list(my_queue)
```

Next, you'll pop some elements out of the queue:

```elixir
{{:value, my_value}, my_queue} = :queue.out(my_queue)
IO.inspect(my_value, label: "First element popped")

{{:value, my_value}, my_queue} = :queue.out(my_queue)
IO.inspect(my_value, label: "Second element popped")

{:empty, my_queue} =
  my_queue
  |> :queue.out()
  |> IO.inspect(label: "When popping from an empty queue")
```

As you can see, the elements are returned in the same order that they were
inserted. In addition, when the queue is empty, the call to `:queue.out/1`
returns `{:empty, {[], []}}` where `{[], []}` is how Erlang represents an
empty queue internally.

<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

Another nice feature of the `:queue` module is that you can pop the element that was
last inserted into the queue (whereas in the previous example the element that was in the
queue the longest was popped). This is useful if you need a data structure that has the
behavior of a stack. In a stack, the last element that is inserted is also the first to
be extracted. In other words, if element `A` is and then element `B` is inserted into a
stack, then element `B` will be popped prior to `A`.

<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

Let's experiment with using the `:queue` module for modeling a stack:

```elixir
# Create a new queue
my_stack = :queue.new()

# Add an element to the queue
my_stack = :queue.in(1, my_stack)

# Add another element to the queue
my_stack = :queue.in(2, my_stack)

# Add another element to the queue
my_stack = :queue.in(3, my_stack)
```

Next we'll pop some elements out of the stack. Be sure to note the order
in which the elements are returned as compared to the regular queue.

```elixir
{{:value, my_value}, my_stack} = :queue.out_r(my_stack)
IO.inspect(my_value, label: "First element popped")

{{:value, my_value}, my_stack} = :queue.out_r(my_stack)
IO.inspect(my_value, label: "Second element popped")

{{:value, my_value}, my_stack} = :queue.out_r(my_stack)
IO.inspect(my_value, label: "Third element popped")
```

As you can see, the elements come back in a last-in-first-out order by
using the `:queue.out_r/1` function as opposed to the `:queue.out/1` function.

## :sets Module

Sets are useful data structures for when you need to ensure that you have one
and only one of each item in the collection. In other words, there is no possibility
of having duplicates in a set. If you attempt to insert a duplicate element into the
set, you will receive the same set back. Erlang provides us with several different set
implementations and it is important to know when each is applicable for the problem at
hand. Let's take a look at the `:sets` module first.

<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

The Erlang `:sets` module allows you to add elements to the set if comparing them
via `===` yields `false`. In addition, depending on how you initialize the set,
you may have different underlying data structures that represent the set.

```elixir
# Create a new set
unique_emails = :sets.new(version: 2)

# Add some elements to the set
unique_emails = :sets.add_element("john@cool-app.com", unique_emails)
unique_emails = :sets.add_element("jane@cool-app.com", unique_emails)
unique_emails = :sets.add_element("jane@cool-app.com", unique_emails)
```

As you can see from the previous snippet, when attempting to add `jane@cool-app.com`
again, the `:sets.add_element/2` call yielded a set with only one entry of
`jane@cool-app.com`. Having run the previous snippet to create the `unique_emails` set,
let's see what other functions you can run on the set:

```elixir
unique_emails
|> :sets.to_list()
|> IO.inspect(label: "Convert set to list")

"alex@cool-app.com"
|> :sets.is_element(unique_emails)
|> IO.inspect(label: "Element \"alex@cool-app.com\" in set?")
```

## :ordsets Module

Another set implementation that Erlang offers is `:ordsets`. This module differs
from the previously discussed `:sets` module in a couple of ways:

1. The internal representation of the set is an ordered list where the order is defined by the [Erlang term order](https://www.erlang.org/doc/reference_manual/expressions.html#term-comparisons)
2. It checks for element equality via `==` as opposed to `===`

<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

Let's create a set with the `:ordsets` module and see how it works:

```elixir
# Create a new ordered set
my_set = :ordsets.new()

# Add some elements to the set
my_set = :ordsets.add_element("Jane Smith", my_set)
my_set = :ordsets.add_element("Alex Koutmos", my_set)
my_set = :ordsets.add_element("Alex Koutmos", my_set)

# Convert the ordered set to a list
:ordsets.to_list(my_set)
```

As you can see, the elements in the set are returned in the proper order and
there are no duplicates in the end result.

## :gb_sets Module

The `:gb_sets` module is the last set implementation that we will be looking at. Like
the previously mentioned modules, the user-facing APIs are more or less the same, with
the differences being mostly in the underlying implementation of the data structure.
Another thing to note is that `:gb_sets` behaves like `:ordsets` in that it compares
elements via `==` and not `===`. In other words, if you need to differentiate between
`42` and `42.0` in your set, this implementation is not the one for you. Under the
hood, `:gb_sets` stores the set as a general balanced tree and so, operations on the
set will be done in logarithmic time. Let's take a look at an example using `:gb_sets`
to see how it compares to the other implementations:

```elixir
# Create a new set
my_gb_set = :gb_sets.new()

# Add some elements to the set
my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(42, my_gb_set)
my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(42.0, my_gb_set)
my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(2, my_gb_set)
my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(10, my_gb_set)
my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(10, my_gb_set)

# Return a list of all the unique elements
:gb_sets.to_list(my_gb_set)
```

As you can see, our end result only contains a list of the unique elements added
to the set.

## :array Module

While you wouldn't expect arrays to be available in a functional programming language, they are
indeed something that you get out of the box with Erlang. While arrays in Erlang don't have
the same characteristics that you would expect from arrays in object-oriented languages, they
do offer the ability to randomly access elements (albeit not in constant time). For those
unfamiliar with arrays, they allow you to get and set elements by a numerical index. They
differ from linked lists in that you can access element 5 for example without having to start
at the head of the list and traverse it until you get to the fifth element. Let's take a look
at an example to see how it works:

```elixir
# Create a new array
my_array = :array.new()

# Set some dummy data
my_array = :array.set(0, "Alex Koutmos", my_array)
my_array = :array.set(1, "Bob Smith", my_array)
my_array = :array.set(2, "Jannet Angelo", my_array)

# Retrieve some data
1
|> :array.get(my_array)
|> IO.inspect(label: "Element at position 1")

2
|> :array.get(my_array)
|> IO.inspect(label: "Element at position 2")
```

If you find yourself needing to extract data in a way that makes heavy use of the
element's index, arrays may be a good option for you as tuples (the underlying data
structure representing the array) are more performant when it comes to
random element access when compared to say lists.

	# Erlang Data Structures and Storage

	## Introduction

	[<- Back to index](../index.livemd#livebook-files)

	<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

	With Erlang, and by extension Elixir, being functional programming languages,
	we can expect that the data structures that we have access to natively on the
	BEAM are immutable are cannot be altered whenever they are passed to a function.
	As a construct, immutability provides some amazing guarantees (especially in a team
	environment). It means that we can rest easy knowing that the data that we pass from
	function to function is not being changed out from under us and unintended side-effects
	are not something that we generally need to worry about.

	<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

	With that being said, Erlang and OTP ship with a wide array of immutable
	data structures right out of the box! This Livebook notebook serves as a reference
	so that you can see how you can use the built-in Erlang data structures right from
	Elixir!

	## :queue Module

	Queues are one of the most basic (yet powerful) data structures in computer
	science and have applicability in a wide range of scenarios. Simply put, a
	queue defines a collection of items that are processed in a first-in-first-out
	fashion. In other words, an element `A` that was put into the queue before element `B`,
	will be processed prior to element `B`.

	<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

	Let's see how we can use the `:queue` module right from Elixir. For starters, you'll create
	a new queue and add some elements to it:

	```elixir
	# Create a new queue
	my_queue = :queue.new()

	# Add an element to the queue
	my_queue = :queue.in(1, my_queue)

	# Add another element to the queue
	my_queue = :queue.in(2, my_queue)

	# Convert the queue to a list to see what is in it
	:queue.to_list(my_queue)
	```

	Next, you'll pop some elements out of the queue:

	```elixir
	{{:value, my_value}, my_queue} = :queue.out(my_queue)
	IO.inspect(my_value, label: "First element popped")

	{{:value, my_value}, my_queue} = :queue.out(my_queue)
	IO.inspect(my_value, label: "Second element popped")

	{:empty, my_queue} =
	my_queue
	\|> :queue.out()
	\|> IO.inspect(label: "When popping from an empty queue")
	```

	As you can see, the elements are returned in the same order that they were
	inserted. In addition, when the queue is empty, the call to `:queue.out/1`
	returns `{:empty, {[], []}}` where `{[], []}` is how Erlang represents an
	empty queue internally.

	<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

	Another nice feature of the `:queue` module is that you can pop the element that was
	last inserted into the queue (whereas in the previous example the element that was in the
	queue the longest was popped). This is useful if you need a data structure that has the
	behavior of a stack. In a stack, the last element that is inserted is also the first to
	be extracted. In other words, if element `A` is and then element `B` is inserted into a
	stack, then element `B` will be popped prior to `A`.

	<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

	Let's experiment with using the `:queue` module for modeling a stack:

	```elixir
	# Create a new queue
	my_stack = :queue.new()

	# Add an element to the queue
	my_stack = :queue.in(1, my_stack)

	# Add another element to the queue
	my_stack = :queue.in(2, my_stack)

	# Add another element to the queue
	my_stack = :queue.in(3, my_stack)
	```

	Next we'll pop some elements out of the stack. Be sure to note the order
	in which the elements are returned as compared to the regular queue.

	```elixir
	{{:value, my_value}, my_stack} = :queue.out_r(my_stack)
	IO.inspect(my_value, label: "First element popped")

	{{:value, my_value}, my_stack} = :queue.out_r(my_stack)
	IO.inspect(my_value, label: "Second element popped")

	{{:value, my_value}, my_stack} = :queue.out_r(my_stack)
	IO.inspect(my_value, label: "Third element popped")
	```

	As you can see, the elements come back in a last-in-first-out order by
	using the `:queue.out_r/1` function as opposed to the `:queue.out/1` function.

	## :sets Module

	Sets are useful data structures for when you need to ensure that you have one
	and only one of each item in the collection. In other words, there is no possibility
	of having duplicates in a set. If you attempt to insert a duplicate element into the
	set, you will receive the same set back. Erlang provides us with several different set
	implementations and it is important to know when each is applicable for the problem at
	hand. Let's take a look at the `:sets` module first.

	<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

	The Erlang `:sets` module allows you to add elements to the set if comparing them
	via `===` yields `false`. In addition, depending on how you initialize the set,
	you may have different underlying data structures that represent the set.

	```elixir
	# Create a new set
	unique_emails = :sets.new(version: 2)

	# Add some elements to the set
	unique_emails = :sets.add_element("john@cool-app.com", unique_emails)
	unique_emails = :sets.add_element("jane@cool-app.com", unique_emails)
	unique_emails = :sets.add_element("jane@cool-app.com", unique_emails)
	```

	As you can see from the previous snippet, when attempting to add `jane@cool-app.com`
	again, the `:sets.add_element/2` call yielded a set with only one entry of
	`jane@cool-app.com`. Having run the previous snippet to create the `unique_emails` set,
	let's see what other functions you can run on the set:

	```elixir
	unique_emails
	\|> :sets.to_list()
	\|> IO.inspect(label: "Convert set to list")

	"alex@cool-app.com"
	\|> :sets.is_element(unique_emails)
	\|> IO.inspect(label: "Element \"alex@cool-app.com\" in set?")
	```

	## :ordsets Module

	Another set implementation that Erlang offers is `:ordsets`. This module differs
	from the previously discussed `:sets` module in a couple of ways:

	1. The internal representation of the set is an ordered list where the order is defined by the [Erlang term order](https://www.erlang.org/doc/reference_manual/expressions.html#term-comparisons)
	2. It checks for element equality via `==` as opposed to `===`

	<!-- livebook:{"break_markdown":true} -->

	Let's create a set with the `:ordsets` module and see how it works:

	```elixir
	# Create a new ordered set
	my_set = :ordsets.new()

	# Add some elements to the set
	my_set = :ordsets.add_element("Jane Smith", my_set)
	my_set = :ordsets.add_element("Alex Koutmos", my_set)
	my_set = :ordsets.add_element("Alex Koutmos", my_set)

	# Convert the ordered set to a list
	:ordsets.to_list(my_set)
	```

	As you can see, the elements in the set are returned in the proper order and
	there are no duplicates in the end result.

	## :gb_sets Module

	The `:gb_sets` module is the last set implementation that we will be looking at. Like
	the previously mentioned modules, the user-facing APIs are more or less the same, with
	the differences being mostly in the underlying implementation of the data structure.
	Another thing to note is that `:gb_sets` behaves like `:ordsets` in that it compares
	elements via `==` and not `===`. In other words, if you need to differentiate between
	`42` and `42.0` in your set, this implementation is not the one for you. Under the
	hood, `:gb_sets` stores the set as a general balanced tree and so, operations on the
	set will be done in logarithmic time. Let's take a look at an example using `:gb_sets`
	to see how it compares to the other implementations:

	```elixir
	# Create a new set
	my_gb_set = :gb_sets.new()

	# Add some elements to the set
	my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(42, my_gb_set)
	my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(42.0, my_gb_set)
	my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(2, my_gb_set)
	my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(10, my_gb_set)
	my_gb_set = :gb_sets.add_element(10, my_gb_set)

	# Return a list of all the unique elements
	:gb_sets.to_list(my_gb_set)
	```

	As you can see, our end result only contains a list of the unique elements added
	to the set.

	## :array Module

	While you wouldn't expect arrays to be available in a functional programming language, they are
	indeed something that you get out of the box with Erlang. While arrays in Erlang don't have
	the same characteristics that you would expect from arrays in object-oriented languages, they
	do offer the ability to randomly access elements (albeit not in constant time). For those
	unfamiliar with arrays, they allow you to get and set elements by a numerical index. They
	differ from linked lists in that you can access element 5 for example without having to start
	at the head of the list and traverse it until you get to the fifth element. Let's take a look
	at an example to see how it works:

	```elixir
	# Create a new array
	my_array = :array.new()

	# Set some dummy data
	my_array = :array.set(0, "Alex Koutmos", my_array)
	my_array = :array.set(1, "Bob Smith", my_array)
	my_array = :array.set(2, "Jannet Angelo", my_array)

	# Retrieve some data
	1
	\|> :array.get(my_array)
	\|> IO.inspect(label: "Element at position 1")

	2
	\|> :array.get(my_array)
	\|> IO.inspect(label: "Element at position 2")
	```

	If you find yourself needing to extract data in a way that makes heavy use of the
	element's index, arrays may be a good option for you as tuples (the underlying data
	structure representing the array) are more performant when it comes to
	random element access when compared to say lists.