| ## Statistical Method |
|
|
| We constructed a live candidate pool by querying the Censys Platform for 11 |
| IoT device classes and iteratively expanding underrepresented classes until |
| the pool contained 5,800 cross-class unique public IP |
| addresses. IoTProber identified a type label and vendor label from the |
| 46-column multi-perspective fingerprint evidence. We retained candidates only |
| when the Shodan host query returned `ok` and the IoTProber vendor label was not |
| `Unknown`, then selected the first 200 eligible addresses per class (2,200 |
| instances in total). Consequently, 100% Shodan host coverage and 100% |
| IoTProber vendor-label availability are sampling constraints and must not be |
| interpreted as unbiased population-level performance estimates. |
|
|
| For every validation IP, we queried Censys and Shodan and applied a |
| native-first mapping hierarchy. Platform-reported CVEs were used first, |
| followed by platform-reported CPEs. Only when neither was available did we |
| construct a type-compatible CPE from that method's own device type, vendor, |
| product, and version observations; baseline methods never reused the |
| IoTProber vendor label. Candidate mappings were restricted to the CISA |
| Known Exploited Vulnerabilities catalog, and explicit product versions were |
| validated against affected-version ranges from CVE.org. |
|
|
| We report pooled and per-device-class coverage on the balanced validation set. |
| Binary proportions include Wilson 95% confidence intervals. Since all methods |
| were evaluated on the same IPs, pairwise differences were tested using the |
| two-sided exact McNemar test and are accompanied by absolute percentage-point |
| differences. Platform-native CVE reports, product-level candidates, and |
| version-confirmed mappings are reported separately. |
|
|
| For the shared vendor metric, we report agreement between each method's device |
| vendor and the IoTProber vendor label. Generic software component vendors such |
| as Apache or Linux are not counted as device-vendor identifications. |
|
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