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4,100	Rules typically take the form of an '{IF:THEN} expression', (e.g. {IF 'condition' THEN 'result'}, or as a more specific example, {IF 'red' AND 'octagon' THEN 'stop-sign}). An individual rule is not in itself a model, since the rule is only applicable when its condition is satisfied. Therefore rule-based machine learnin...	Rule-based machine learning	0.829014
4,101	Rule-based machine learning (RBML) is a term in computer science intended to encompass any machine learning method that identifies, learns, or evolves 'rules' to store, manipulate or apply. The defining characteristic of a rule-based machine learner is the identification and utilization of a set of relational rules tha...	Rule-based machine learning	0.829014
4,102	The "filaments evaluation protocol" (FEP) is a protocol developed to establish the characteristics and qualities of materials used in FDM/FFF 3D printing.	Filaments evaluation protocol	0.829007
4,103	The selection criteria include the physical: phase (liquid, solid or slurry), temperature, pressure or vacuum, chemistry, dielectric constant of medium, density (specific gravity) of medium, agitation (action), acoustical or electrical noise, vibration, mechanical shock, tank or bin size and shape. Also important are t...	Level Measurement	0.829
4,104	Depending on the requirements of the site, level probes offer different features: Protective cap Size and number of openings / holesHousing material Stainless steel, titanium, PTFECable material PE, FEP, PURE EPR, PAMeasuring principle Relative or sealed gaugeSensor technology Piezoresistive silicon sensor, ceramic thi...	Level Measurement	0.829
4,105	Degenerate primers may not perfectly hybridize with a target sequence, which can greatly reduce the specificity of the PCR amplification. Degenerate primers are widely used and extremely useful in the field of microbial ecology.	PCR Primer	0.82899
4,106	The canonical commutation relation of quantum mechanics, = i ℏ {\displaystyle =i\hbar } , has the property of being invariant in a scaling p ^ i ′ = p ^ i / λ {\displaystyle {\hat {p}}_{i}'={\hat {p}}_{i}/\lambda } , and x ^ i ′ = λ x ^ i {\displaystyle {\hat {x}}_{i}'=\lambda {\hat {x}}_{i}} , where λ {\displaystyle ...	Inverse square potential	0.828989
4,107	In quantum mechanics, the inverse square potential is a form of a central force potential which has the unusual property of the eigenstates of the corresponding Hamiltonian operator remaining eigenstates in a scaling of all cartesian coordinates by the same constant. Apart from this curious feature, it's by far less im...	Inverse square potential	0.828989
4,108	Idaho National Laboratory – IEC61850 – IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society – IEEE Antennas and Propagation Society – IEEE Broadcast Technology Society – IEEE Circuits and Systems Society – IEEE Communications Society – IEEE Dielectrics & Electrical Insulation Society – IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Socie...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,109	Earth-leakage circuit breaker – Earth potential rise – Earth – Earthing system – Ebers-Moll – Ecotax – Eddy current – Edge detection – Edison effect – Edison Pioneer – Eigenvalues and eigenvectors – Electret – Electric arc – Electric charge – Electric circuit – Electric current – Electric displacement field – Electric ...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,110	– Crest factor – Crossed-field amplifier – Crosstalk – Cruise control – Crystal oscillator – Ćuk converter – Current (electricity) – Current density – Current division – Current source inverter – Current source – Current transformer – Current-to-voltage converter – Cybernetics – Cyber-physical system – Cycloconverter –...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,111	Cable – Cadmium – Calculus – Canadian electrical code – Canadian Standards Association – Capacitance – Capacitor voltage transformer – Capacitor – Capacitor-input filter – Capacitors – Capacity factor – Carbon offset – Carrier current – Carrier wave – Category 3 cable – Category 5e cable – Category 5e – Category 6 cabl...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,112	Radar cross-section – Radar – Radio frequency – Radio transmitter – Radio – Railroad – Railway electrification system – Rankine cycle – Rapid transit – Reactive power – Real-time operating system – Receiver (radio) – Rechargeable battery – Reciprocity (electromagnetism) – Record player – Rectifier – Rectiformer – Recur...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,113	Observability – Occupations in electrical/electronics engineering – Ohm – Ohmmeter – Ohm's law – Oil shale – One-line diagram – On-premises wiring – Open-circuit test – Open-circuit voltage – Open-circuit time constant method – Open-circuit voltage – Operational amplifier – Optical fiber – Optimal control – Oscillation...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,114	Macroscopic – Machine learning -- Magnet wire – Magnet – Magnetic blowout – Magnetic circuit – Magnetic constant – Magnetic core – Magnetic-core memory – Magnetic field – Magnetic flux density – Magnetic flux – Magnetic moment – Magnetics – Magnetism – Magnetization – Magnetization current – Magnetostatics – Magnetostr...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,115	Lacquer – LAN – Laplace transform – Laser diode – Leakage inductance – Least squares – Light-emitting diode – Line integral – Linear alternator – linear differential equation – Linear matrix inequality – Linear motor – Linear transformation in rotating electrical machines – Linear variable differential transformer – li...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,116	Kalman filter – Kalman–Yakubovich–Popov lemma – Kelvin–Stokes theorem – Kilovolt-ampere – Kirchhoff's circuit laws – Klystron – Kolmogorov backward equation –	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,117	Vacuum capacitor – Vacuum tube – Variable capacitor – Variable-frequency drive – Variac – Varicap – Variety (cybernetics) – Varistor – Varnish – Vector (geometric) – Vector calculus – Vector control (motor) – Vector group – Vehicle-to-grid – Vehicular automation – Velcro – Versorium – Vibrator (electronic) – Video came...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,118	This is an alphabetical list of articles pertaining specifically to electrical and electronics engineering. For a thematic list, please see List of electrical engineering topics. For a broad overview of engineering, see List of engineering topics. For biographies, see List of engineers.	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,119	H infinity – Hall-effect sensor – Harmonic distortion – Harmonic oscillator – Harmonic – Harmonics (electrical power) – H-bridge – HDTV – Headphone – Heat transfer – Heatsink – Heaviside step function – Henry (unit) – Hertz – Heterostructure – Hewlett-Packard – Hi-Fi – High-voltage cable – High voltage – High-pass filt...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,120	– Equalization (communications) – Equivalent circuit – Equivalent impedance transforms – Error correction and detection – Error correction – Error detection – Ethernet – Ethical code – Euclidean geometry – Euler–Lagrange equation – Euler's formula – Euler's identity – Exponential stability – Extended Kalman filter – Ex...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,121	Backward-wave oscillator – Balanced line – Ball bearing motor – Balun – Band-pass filter – Band-stop filter – Bandwidth (signal processing) – Bang–bang control – Barlow's wheel – Bartlett's bisection theorem – Base-load power plant – Battery (electricity) – Battery eliminator – Bayer filter – Beam tetrode – Beat freque...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,122	Abrasion (mechanical) – AC adapter – AC power plugs and sockets – AC power – AC/AC converter – AC/DC receiver design – AC/DC conversion – Active rectification – Actuator – Adaptive control – Adjustable-speed drive – Advanced Z-transform – Affinity law – Agbioeletric – AIEE – All American Five – Alloy – ALOHAnet – Alpha...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,123	Tachometer – Tap (transformer) – Tap changer – Taylor series – Technical drawing – Technology – Telecommunication – Telecommunications cable – Telecommunications engineering – Telecommunications Industry Association – Telecommunications – Telegraph – Telephone balance unit – Telephone line – Telephone – Television – Te...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,124	receiver – Superposition theorem – Surge arrester – Surge protection – Switch – Switched reluctance motor – Switched-mode power supply – Switchgear – Symbolic circuit analysis – Symmetrical components – Synchro – Synchronization (alternating current) – Synchronous circuit – Synchronous motor – Synchronous rectification...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,125	Sallen–Key filter – Sample and hold – Sampling (information theory) – Sampling frequency – Satellite radio – Satellite – Saturation (magnetic) – SCADA – Schmitt trigger – Schottky diode – Scott-T transformer – s-domain – SDTV – Segmentation (image processing) – Selenium rectifiers – Semiconductor device – Semiconductor...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,126	Pad-mounted transformer – Pantograph (rail) – Paraformer – Parameter estimation – Park transform – Park's transformation – Partial discharge – Passivity (engineering) – Patch cables – Peak demand – Pearl Street Station – Peltier–Seebeck effect – Pentagrid converter – Pentode – Permanent magnet synchronous generator – P...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,127	Nameplate capacity – Nanoengineering – Nanoinverter – Nanomotor – Nanotechnology – National electric code – National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) – Natural gas – Negative feedback – Negative resistance – Negawatt power – Nelson River Bipole – Neodymium magnets – Neon sign – Neon-sign transformer – Net me...	Index of electrical engineering articles	0.828974
4,128	When studied outside the cell, the slowest folding proteins require many minutes or hours to fold, primarily due to proline isomerization, and must pass through a number of intermediate states, like checkpoints, before the process is complete. On the other hand, very small single-domain proteins with lengths of up to a...	Misfolded protein	0.82897
4,129	The second element involves constructing a full model using machine learning. Breaking the problem into two means that smaller targeted data sets can be used to train the classifiers, and that classifier can operate independently and be trained with smaller windows. The full model can use the independent classifier, an...	Gene identification	0.828965
4,130	Among the derived signals used for prediction are statistics resulting from the sub-sequence statistics like k-mer statistics, Isochore (genetics) or Compositional domain GC composition/uniformity/entropy, sequence and frame length, Intron/Exon/Donor/Acceptor/Promoter and Ribosomal binding site vocabulary, Fractal dime...	Gene identification	0.828965
4,131	Tests were carried out by Sir William Bragg (part of the Fellowship of the Royal Society) in the late 1920s, and he reported that " Magnetic Crescograph correctly recorded the response of plants at a magnification of ten million time." Following that, there was a shift in perspective from the idea that plants mainly us...	The Nervous Mechanism of Plants	0.828959
4,132	This resparked the subject in the plant neurobiology community. Bose's work inspired many of his students who all transitioned into scientists in physics or biology with allowed the further development of the subject that is still studied today.During Bose's lifetime, he was often criticised for his work, especially re...	The Nervous Mechanism of Plants	0.828959
4,133	After publication, Bose's views on plant mechanics gained support from numerous Nobel Laureates such as Huxley, Shaw and Einstein. Racism during the 1920s also impacted how Bose's work was accepted by the public. Bose was a physics professor at the Presidency College in Calcutta.	The Nervous Mechanism of Plants	0.828959
4,134	Published in 1926, the book "The Nervous Mechanism of Plants" by Jagadish Chandra Bose was revolutionary as he was one of the first plant biologists to be recognised for his research on the nervous system of plants. He had already achieved recognition for his endeavours in physics where he studied optical properties of...	The Nervous Mechanism of Plants	0.828959
4,135	During the 20th century, there was a vast increase in research regarding botany. This derived from the new technologies acquired as well as the better facilities available and increased number of botanists interested in expanding this scientific field. The increase in research resulted in new discoveries, new concepts ...	The Nervous Mechanism of Plants	0.828959
4,136	However, the stepsize γ i {\displaystyle \gamma _{i}} needs to be chosen carefully to solve the expected risk minimization problem, as detailed above. By choosing a decaying step size γ i ≈ 1 i , {\displaystyle \gamma _{i}\approx {\frac {1}{\sqrt {i}}},} one can prove the convergence of the average iterate w ¯ n = 1 n ...	Online machine learning	0.828957
4,137	Vowpal Wabbit: Open-source fast out-of-core online learning system which is notable for supporting a number of machine learning reductions, importance weighting and a selection of different loss functions and optimisation algorithms. It uses the hashing trick for bounding the size of the set of features independent of ...	Online machine learning	0.828957
4,138	In computer science, online machine learning is a method of machine learning in which data becomes available in a sequential order and is used to update the best predictor for future data at each step, as opposed to batch learning techniques which generate the best predictor by learning on the entire training data set ...	Online machine learning	0.828957
4,139	In this case, the space requirements are no longer guaranteed to be constant since it requires storing all previous data points, but the solution may take less time to compute with the addition of a new data point, as compared to batch learning techniques. A common strategy to overcome the above issues is to learn usin...	Online machine learning	0.828957
4,140	Forces can be used to define a number of physical concepts by integrating with respect to kinematic variables. For example, integrating with respect to time gives the definition of impulse: which by Newton's Second Law must be equivalent to the change in momentum (yielding the Impulse momentum theorem). Similarly, inte...	Force vector	0.828956
4,141	Simple experiments showed that Galileo's understanding of the equivalence of constant velocity and rest were correct. For example, if a mariner dropped a cannonball from the crow's nest of a ship moving at a constant velocity, Aristotelian physics would have the cannonball fall straight down while the ship moved beneat...	Force vector	0.828956
4,142	Dynamic equilibrium was first described by Galileo who noticed that certain assumptions of Aristotelian physics were contradicted by observations and logic. Galileo realized that simple velocity addition demands that the concept of an "absolute rest frame" did not exist. Galileo concluded that motion in a constant velo...	Force vector	0.828956
4,143	In contrast, the second law states that if there is an unbalanced force acting on an object it will result in the object's momentum changing over time.In common engineering applications the mass in a system remains constant allowing as simple algebraic form for the second law. By the definition of momentum, where m is ...	Force vector	0.828956
4,144	Galileo constructed an experiment in which stones and cannonballs were both rolled down an incline to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion. He showed that the bodies were accelerated by gravity to an extent that was independent of their mass and argued that objects retain their velocity unless acted on by a force...	Force vector	0.828956
4,145	An archer causes the arrow to move at the start of the flight, and it then sails through the air even though no discernible efficient cause acts upon it. Aristotle was aware of this problem and proposed that the air displaced through the projectile's path carries the projectile to its target. This explanation requires ...	Force vector	0.828956
4,146	However, the more pronounced quantum effects are in a given situation, the more difficult it is to derive meaningful conclusions from this resemblance.Quantum mechanics also introduces two new constraints that interact with forces at the submicroscopic scale and which are especially important for atoms. Despite the str...	Force vector	0.828956
4,147	In quantum physics, the Born rule is used to calculate the expectation values of a position measurement or a momentum measurement. These expectation values will generally change over time; that is, depending on the time at which (for example) a position measurement is performed, the probabilities for its different poss...	Force vector	0.828956
4,148	Quantum mechanics allows the physicist to calculate the probability that a chosen measurement will elicit a particular result. The expectation value for a measurement is the average of the possible results it might yield, weighted by their probabilities of occurrence.In quantum mechanics, interactions are typically des...	Force vector	0.828956
4,149	Quantum mechanics is a theory of physics originally developed in order to understand microscopic phenomena: behavior at the scale of molecules, atoms or subatomic particles. Generally and loosely speaking, the smaller a system is, the more an adequate mathematical model will require understanding quantum effects. The c...	Force vector	0.828956
4,150	Maxwell's equations and the set of techniques built around them adequately describe a wide range of physics involving force in electricity and magnetism. This classical theory already includes relativity effects. Understanding quantized electromagnetic interactions between elementary particles requires quantum electrod...	Force vector	0.828956
4,151	Performance comparison of turbines for wave power conversion. Int. J. Therm. Sci., http://www.physicsforums.com/archive/index.php/t-243219.html https://www.scribd.com/doc/55453233/18/Degree-of-reaction Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine	Degree of reaction	0.828949
4,152	The Figure 3 alongside shows the variation of total-to-static efficiency at different blade loading coefficient with the degree of reaction. The governing equation is written as R = 1 + Δ W 2 U 2 − C y 2 U {\displaystyle R=1+{\frac {\Delta W}{2U^{2}}}-{\frac {C_{y2}}{U}}} where Δ W 2 U 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {\Delta W...	Degree of reaction	0.828949
4,153	{\displaystyle R=\phi \tan {\beta _{m}}.} The degree of reaction now depends only on ϕ and tan ⁡ β m {\displaystyle \tan {\beta _{m}}} which again depend on geometrical parameters β3 and β2 i.e. the vane angles of stator outlet and rotor outlet. Using the velocity triangles degree of reaction can be derived as: R = 1 2...	Degree of reaction	0.828949
4,154	Various definitions exist in terms of enthalpies, pressures or flow geometry of the device. In case of turbines, both impulse and reaction machines, Degree of reaction (R) is defined as the ratio of energy transfer by the change in static head to the total energy transfer in the rotor i.e. R = Isentropic enthalpy chang...	Degree of reaction	0.828949
4,155	The cutter geometry reflects the thread pitch but not its lead; the lead (thread helix angle) is determined by the toolpath. Tapered threads can be cut either with a tapered multiple-form cutter that completes the thread in one revolution using helical interpolation, or with a straight or tapered cutter (of single- or ...	Thread rolling	0.828928
4,156	In manufacturing, threading is the process of creating a screw thread. More screw threads are produced each year than any other machine element. There are many methods of generating threads, including subtractive methods (many kinds of thread cutting and grinding, as detailed below); deformative or transformative metho...	Thread rolling	0.828928
4,157	Each method of thread generation has its own detailed history. Therefore, a comprehensive discussion is beyond the scope of this article; but much historical information is available in related articles, including: Screw > History Screw-cutting lathe > History Automatic lathe > History Screw thread > History of standar...	Thread rolling	0.828928
4,158	A method of helical broaching was developed in the 2010s that shortens the toolpath of tapping. To a casual observer (without slow motion), it looks rather similar to traditional tapping but with faster movement into and out of the hole. It uses a specific tool geometry and toolpath to position rapidly, broach the thre...	Thread rolling	0.828928
4,159	Many, perhaps most, threaded parts have potential to be generated via additive manufacturing (3D printing), of which there are many variants, including fused deposition modeling, selective laser sintering, direct metal laser sintering, selective laser melting, electron beam melting, layered object manufacturing, and st...	Thread rolling	0.828928
4,160	Commercial-grade inspection of screw threads can involve most of the same inspection methods and tools used to inspect other manufactured products, such as micrometers; vernier or dial calipers; surface plates and height gauges; gauge blocks; optical comparators; white light scanners; and coordinate-measuring machines ...	Thread rolling	0.828928
4,161	In casting and molding the threads are directly formed by the geometry of the mold cavity in the mold or die. When the material freezes in the mold, it retains the shape after the mold is removed. The material is heated to a liquid, or mixed with a liquid that will either dry or cure (such as plaster or cement). Altern...	Thread rolling	0.828928
4,162	The World, also called Treatise on the Light (French title: Traité du monde et de la lumière), is a book by René Descartes (1596–1650). Written between 1629 and 1633, it contains a nearly complete version of his philosophy, from method, to metaphysics, to physics and biology. Descartes espoused mechanical philosophy, a...	Cartesian laws of motion	0.828925
4,163	Human Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Manual, Main Version, Update, 8/E Elaine N. Marieb, Holyoke Community College Susan J. Mitchell, Onondaga Community College Publisher: Pearson Benjamin Cummings Laboratory Manual for Anatomy & Physiology, Third Edition Author: Michael G. Wood, M.S., Del Mar College, Corpus Christi,...	Biopac student lab	0.828924
4,164	They can also compare results with other students in the lab. The software is available in English, French, Spanish, Italian, Japanese and Chinese. The Biopac Student Lab System is widely used by undergraduate labs to teach physiology, pharmacology, biology, neuroscience, psychology, psychophysiology, exercise physiolo...	Biopac student lab	0.828924
4,165	Although aimed at computer science and mathematics students, much of the book is accessible to a broader audience of mathematically-sophisticated readers with some background in high-school level geometry. Mathematical origami expert Tom Hull has called it "a must-read for anyone interested in the field of computationa...	Geometric Folding Algorithms	0.828924
4,166	The book is organized into three sections, on linkages, origami, and polyhedra.Topics in the section on linkages include the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage for converting rotary motion into linear motion,Kempe's universality theorem that any algebraic curve can be traced out by a linkage, the existence of linkages for angl...	Geometric Folding Algorithms	0.828924
4,167	Geometric Folding Algorithms: Linkages, Origami, Polyhedra is a monograph on the mathematics and computational geometry of mechanical linkages, paper folding, and polyhedral nets, by Erik Demaine and Joseph O'Rourke. It was published in 2007 by Cambridge University Press (ISBN 978-0-521-85757-4). A Japanese-language tr...	Geometric Folding Algorithms	0.828924
4,168	Between 2009 and 2012, the recurrent neural networks and deep feedforward neural networks developed in the research group of Jürgen Schmidhuber at the Swiss AI Lab IDSIA have won eight international competitions in pattern recognition and machine learning. For example, multi-dimensional long short term memory (LSTM) wo...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,169	While initially research had been concerned mostly with the electrical characteristics of neurons, a particularly important part of the investigation in recent years has been the exploration of the role of neuromodulators such as dopamine, acetylcholine, and serotonin on behaviour and learning.Biophysical models, such ...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,170	However, by the time this book came out, methods for training multilayer perceptrons (MLPs) were already known. The first deep learning MLP was published by Alexey Grigorevich Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa in 1965. The first deep learning MLP trained by stochastic gradient descent was published in 1967 by Shun'ichi Amar...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,171	They discovered two key issues with the computational machines that processed neural networks. The first issue was that single-layer neural networks were incapable of processing the exclusive-or circuit. The second significant issue was that computers were not sophisticated enough to effectively handle the long run tim...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,172	The preliminary theoretical base for contemporary neural networks was independently proposed by Alexander Bain (1873) and William James (1890). In their work, both thoughts and body activity resulted from interactions among neurons within the brain. For Bain, every activity led to the firing of a certain set of neurons...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,173	Moreover, recent emphasis on the explainability of AI has contributed towards the development of methods, notably those based on attention mechanisms, for visualizing and explaining learned neural networks. Furthermore, researchers involved in exploring learning algorithms for neural networks are gradually uncovering g...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,174	An unreadable table that a useful machine could read would still be well worth having. Although it is true that analyzing what has been learned by an artificial neural network is difficult, it is much easier to do so than to analyze what has been learned by a biological neural network.	Neural networks	0.828916
4,175	Arguments against Dewdney's position are that neural nets have been successfully used to solve many complex and diverse tasks, such as autonomously flying aircraft.Technology writer Roger Bridgman commented on Dewdney's statements about neural nets: Neural networks, for instance, are in the dock not only because they h...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,176	While the brain has hardware tailored to the task of processing signals through a graph of neurons, simulating even a most simplified form on Von Neumann technology may compel a neural network designer to fill many millions of database rows for its connections—which can consume vast amounts of computer memory and data ...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,177	These issues are common in neural networks that must decide from amongst a wide variety of responses, but can be dealt with in several ways, for example by randomly shuffling the training examples, by using a numerical optimization algorithm that does not take too large steps when changing the network connections follo...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,178	Historically, a common criticism of neural networks, particularly in robotics, was that they require a large diversity of training samples for real-world operation (although if single dimension, only 8 samples required to get practically to low of 12% error). This is not surprising, since any learning machine needs suf...	Neural networks	0.828916
4,179	Radial basis function and wavelet networks have also been introduced. These can be shown to offer best approximation properties and have been applied in nonlinear system identification and classification applications.Deep learning feedforward networks alternate convolutional layers and max-pooling layers, topped by sev...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,180	Theoretical and computational neuroscience is the field concerned with the analysis and computational modeling of biological neural systems. Since neural systems are intimately related to cognitive processes and behaviour, the field is closely related to cognitive and behavioural modeling. The aim of the field is to cr...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,181	In 1981, the Ising model was solved exactly by Peter Barth for the general case of closed Cayley trees (with loops) with an arbitrary branching ratio and found to exhibit unusual phase transition behavior in its local-apex and long-range site-site correlations.The parallel distributed processing of the mid-1980s became...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,182	It is also known as the reverse mode of automatic differentiation or reverse accumulation, due to Seppo Linnainmaa (1970). The term "back-propagating errors" was introduced in 1962 by Frank Rosenblatt, but he did not have an implementation of this procedure, although Henry J. Kelley had a continuous precursor of backpr...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,183	In computer experiments conducted by Amari's student Saito, a five layer MLP with two modifiable layers learned useful internal representations to classify non-linearily separable pattern classes.Neural network research was boosted when computers achieved greater processing power. Also key in later advances was the bac...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,184	Frank Rosenblatt (1958) created the perceptron, an algorithm for pattern recognition based on a two-layer learning computer network using simple addition and subtraction. With mathematical notation, Rosenblatt also described circuitry not in the basic perceptron, such as the exclusive-or circuit. Some say that neural n...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,185	These ideas started being applied to computational models in 1948 with Turing's B-type machines. Farley and Clark (1954) first used computational machines, then called calculators, to simulate a Hebbian network at MIT. Other neural network computational machines were created by Rochester, Holland, Habit, and Duda (1956...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,186	One approach focused on biological processes in the brain and the other focused on the application of neural networks to artificial intelligence. In the late 1940s psychologist Donald Hebb created a hypothesis of learning based on the mechanism of neural plasticity that is now known as Hebbian learning. Hebbian learnin...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,187	His learning RNN was popularised by John Hopfield in 1982.McCulloch and Pitts (1943) also created a computational model for neural networks based on mathematics and algorithms. They called this model threshold logic. These early models paved the way for neural network research to split into two distinct approaches.	Neural networks	0.828915
4,188	Importantly, this work led to the discovery of the concept of habituation. Wilhelm Lenz (1920) and Ernst Ising (1925) created and analyzed the Ising model which is essentially a non-learning artificial recurrent neural network (RNN) consisting of neuron-like threshold elements. In 1972, Shun'ichi Amari made this archit...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,189	In August 2020 scientists reported that bi-directional connections, or added appropriate feedback connections, can accelerate and improve communication between and in modular neural networks of the brain's cerebral cortex and lower the threshold for their successful communication. They showed that adding feedback conne...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,190	A neural network can refer to either a neural circuit of biological neurons (sometimes also called a biological neural network), or a network of artificial neurons or nodes in the case of an artificial neural network. Artificial neural networks are used for solving artificial intelligence (AI) problems; they model conn...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,191	The concept of a neural network appears to have first been proposed by Alan Turing in his 1948 paper Intelligent Machinery in which he called them "B-type unorganised machines".The utility of artificial neural network models lies in the fact that they can be used to infer a function from observations and also to use it...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,192	They can be used to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs or to find patterns in data. An artificial neural network involves a network of simple processing elements (artificial neurons) which can exhibit complex global behavior, determined by the connections between the processing elements and element ...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,193	A neural network (NN), in the case of artificial neurons called artificial neural network (ANN) or simulated neural network (SNN), is an interconnected group of natural or artificial neurons that uses a mathematical or computational model for information processing based on a connectionistic approach to computation. In...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,194	Historically, digital computers evolved from the von Neumann model, and operate via the execution of explicit instructions via access to memory by a number of processors. On the other hand, the origins of neural networks are based on efforts to model information processing in biological systems. Unlike the von Neumann ...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,195	Artificial intelligence, cognitive modelling, and neural networks are information processing paradigms inspired by how biological neural systems process data. Artificial intelligence and cognitive modelling try to simulate some properties of biological neural networks. In the artificial intelligence field, artificial n...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,196	A biological neural network is composed of a group of chemically connected or functionally associated neurons. A single neuron may be connected to many other neurons and the total number of neurons and connections in a network may be extensive. Connections, called synapses, are usually formed from axons to dendrites, t...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,197	Neural networks can be used in different fields. The tasks to which artificial neural networks are applied tend to fall within the following broad categories: Function approximation, or regression analysis, including time series prediction and modeling. Classification, including pattern and sequence recognition, novelt...	Neural networks	0.828915
4,198	The aperture synthesis process, which involves autocorrelating and discrete Fourier transforming the incoming signal, recovers both the spatial and frequency variation in flux. The result is a 3D image whose third axis is frequency. For this work, Ryle and Hewish were jointly awarded the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics.	Stellar spectrum	0.82891
4,199	Radio astronomy was founded with the work of Karl Jansky in the early 1930s, while working for Bell Labs. He built a radio antenna to look at potential sources of interference for transatlantic radio transmissions. One of the sources of noise discovered came not from Earth, but from the center of the Milky Way, in the ...	Stellar spectrum	0.82891

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