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john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_105 | But peasant society was threatened by growing commercialisation, owing in part to the Ptolemies' introduction of coinage, by the dominance of Greek-speaking cities, and by Roman encouragement of large estates on which tenants paid half their crop in rent, while a growing class of poor peasants, agricultural labourers, ... | But peasant society was threatened by growing commercialisation, owing in part to the Ptolemies' introduction of coinage, by the dominance of Greek-speaking cities, and by Roman encouragement of large estates on which tenants paid half their crop in rent, while a growing class of poor peasants, agricultural labourers, ... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 70,444 | 432 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_106 | AFRICANS: THE HISTORY OF A CONTINENT
AD 152 and 172–3, protest found millenarian expression in ancient cultural terms:
[Justice] will return, transferred back to Egypt, and the city by the sea [i.e. Alexandria] will be but a place for fishermen to dry their catch, because Knephis, the Tutelary Divinity, will have gon... | AFRICANS: THE HISTORY OF A CONTINENT
AD 152 and 172–3, protest found millenarian expression in ancient cultural terms:
[Justice] will return, transferred back to Egypt, and the city by the sea [i.e. Alexandria] will be but a place for fishermen to dry their catch, because Knephis, the Tutelary Divinity, will have gon... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 70,876 | 584 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_108 | ‘Egyptian antiquity is to African culture what Graeco-Roman antiquity is to Western culture’, wrote the Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop.$^{5}$ There is little evidence to support him, for Egypt was remarkably unsuccessful in transmitting its culture to the rest of the continent, partly because that culture was so p... | ‘Egyptian antiquity is to African culture what Graeco-Roman antiquity is to Western culture’, wrote the Senegalese scholar Cheikh Anta Diop.$^{5}$ There is little evidence to support him, for Egypt was remarkably unsuccessful in transmitting its culture to the rest of the continent, partly because that culture was so p... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 71,494 | 1,009 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_109 | Perhaps no more than half a million people lived in this arid region in pharaonic times, with evidence of high deathrates among young adults. So small a population was vulnerable to near-extinction in adverse circumstances, especially political circumstances, for Nubia prospered when Egypt was weak but suffered when Eg... | Perhaps no more than half a million people lived in this arid region in pharaonic times, with evidence of high deathrates among young adults. So small a population was vulnerable to near-extinction in adverse circumstances, especially political circumstances, for Nubia prospered when Egypt was weak but suffered when Eg... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 72,503 | 595 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_110 | Just as the oldest Egyptian tombs of the fourth millennium BC contained ivory and ebony objects from the south, so Lower Nubian graves of the late fourth millennium contained pottery, copper tools, and other objects of Egyptian origin. These graves belonged to people known only as the ‘A Group’, cultivators of wheat an... | Just as the oldest Egyptian tombs of the fourth millennium BC contained ivory and ebony objects from the south, so Lower Nubian graves of the late fourth millennium contained pottery, copper tools, and other objects of Egyptian origin. These graves belonged to people known only as the ‘A Group’, cultivators of wheat an... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 73,098 | 715 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_111 | to the prow of an Egyptian ship, possibly indicating Egypt’s first known invasion southwards. By Egypt’s Third Dynasty (from c. 2695 BC), Lower Nubia was only sparsely populated and there was an Egyptian town at Buhen near the Second Cataract (shortly to be a centre for the smelting of local copper), while the presence... | to the prow of an Egyptian ship, possibly indicating Egypt’s first known invasion southwards. By Egypt’s Third Dynasty (from c. 2695 BC), Lower Nubia was only sparsely populated and there was an Egyptian town at Buhen near the Second Cataract (shortly to be a centre for the smelting of local copper), while the presence... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 73,813 | 906 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_112 | ‘It was burning their houses that I sailed downstream, plucking corn and cutting down their remaining trees.’ Egyptians built powerful forts on their southern border close to the Second Cataract and began to mine the gold of the eastern desert, which now became central to Nubia’s external relations. For the first time,... | ‘It was burning their houses that I sailed downstream, plucking corn and cutting down their remaining trees.’ Egyptians built powerful forts on their southern border close to the Second Cataract and began to mine the gold of the eastern desert, which now became central to Nubia’s external relations. For the first time,... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 74,719 | 425 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_113 | This, the earliest recorded African state outside Egypt, was centred south of the Third Cataract, Nubia’s richest agricultural region and the point where a desert road led away from the river towards the southern lands whose commerce was one source of the kingdom’s wealth. Its capital, Kerma, took shape about 2500 BC a... | This, the earliest recorded African state outside Egypt, was centred south of the Third Cataract, Nubia’s richest agricultural region and the point where a desert road led away from the river towards the southern lands whose commerce was one source of the kingdom’s wealth. Its capital, Kerma, took shape about 2500 BC a... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 75,144 | 755 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_114 | By this time, Kerma had absorbed much Egyptian culture, using copper extensively for vessels and weapons, building a massively walled capital, and fashioning its ritual centre to resemble an Egyptian temple, although the local religion laid a distinctively African emphasis on sacrifice. The huge royal tumulus-tombs of ... | By this time, Kerma had absorbed much Egyptian culture, using copper extensively for vessels and weapons, building a massively walled capital, and fashioning its ritual centre to resemble an Egyptian temple, although the local religion laid a distinctively African emphasis on sacrifice. The huge royal tumulus-tombs of ... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 75,899 | 576 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_115 | Kerma was victim of the last and most potent phase of Egyptian expansion, which sought not only gold but military glory and administrative power. The reunification that created the New Kingdom first permitted the reoccupation of Lower Nubia and then enabled Tuthmosis III to destroy Kerma in about 1450 BC and to penetra... | Kerma was victim of the last and most potent phase of Egyptian expansion, which sought not only gold but military glory and administrative power. The reunification that created the New Kingdom first permitted the reoccupation of Lower Nubia and then enabled Tuthmosis III to destroy Kerma in about 1450 BC and to penetra... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 76,475 | 572 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_116 | or labourers and were so fully assimilated as to be indistinguishable from Egyptians in the archaeological record. When Egyptian forces withdrew at the end of the New Kingdom in 1070 BC, they left a depleted and impoverished population, perhaps partly because lower Nile levels had meanwhile reduced the floodplain's fer... | or labourers and were so fully assimilated as to be indistinguishable from Egyptians in the archaeological record. When Egyptian forces withdrew at the end of the New Kingdom in 1070 BC, they left a depleted and impoverished population, perhaps partly because lower Nile levels had meanwhile reduced the floodplain's fer... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 77,047 | 505 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_117 | During the ninth century BC, a state reemerged in Upper Nubia, with many similarities to Kerma (to judge from royal burials) but now, presumably in response to further desiccation, based further up the Nile at Napata, the point where the desert road from Kerma again met the river. From this base, in c. 728 BC, King Pia... | During the ninth century BC, a state reemerged in Upper Nubia, with many similarities to Kerma (to judge from royal burials) but now, presumably in response to further desiccation, based further up the Nile at Napata, the point where the desert road from Kerma again met the river. From this base, in c. 728 BC, King Pia... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 77,552 | 739 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_118 | The Saite rulers who expelled Taharqa's successors from Egypt followed up their victory by attacking Napata in 593 BC. At some point thereafter, the capital moved still further south to Meroe, the most southerly junction between the desert road and the Nile, above the Fifth Cataract. Here the state, already ancient, wa... | The Saite rulers who expelled Taharqa's successors from Egypt followed up their victory by attacking Napata in 593 BC. At some point thereafter, the capital moved still further south to Meroe, the most southerly junction between the desert road and the Nile, above the Fifth Cataract. Here the state, already ancient, wa... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 78,291 | 992 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_119 | From the second century BC, twenty-three signs from Egyptian script were converted into an alphabet in which the still unintelligible Meroitic language was written. Rulers of Meroe were high priests in the pharaonic manner, called themselves Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt, and were buried under ever smaller pyramids un... | From the second century BC, twenty-three signs from Egyptian script were converted into an alphabet in which the still unintelligible Meroitic language was written. Rulers of Meroe were high priests in the pharaonic manner, called themselves Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt, and were buried under ever smaller pyramids un... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 79,283 | 957 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_120 | rainlands. Rather than transmitting Egyptian culture southwards to tropical Africa, Meroe absorbed it into indigenous culture, as was to happen to foreign cultures so often in African history. Even the southward transmission of iron-working is doubtful. The kingdom itself disappeared from Meroe in the fourth century AD... | rainlands. Rather than transmitting Egyptian culture southwards to tropical Africa, Meroe absorbed it into indigenous culture, as was to happen to foreign cultures so often in African history. Even the southward transmission of iron-working is doubtful. The kingdom itself disappeared from Meroe in the fourth century AD... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 80,240 | 859 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_121 | There was one further Nubian legacy. While Kerma dominated Upper Nubia, between about 2500 and 1500 BC, a chiefdom emerged in the Gash Delta to the southeast, near the modern border between Sudan and Ethiopia, on an important trade route to the Red Sea that has left Kerma-style pottery on the western shore of Arabia.$^... | There was one further Nubian legacy. While Kerma dominated Upper Nubia, between about 2500 and 1500 BC, a chiefdom emerged in the Gash Delta to the southeast, near the modern border between Sudan and Ethiopia, on an important trade route to the Red Sea that has left Kerma-style pottery on the western shore of Arabia.$^... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 81,099 | 927 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_122 | A temple of the period to the astronomical gods of South Arabia survives at Yeha in modern Tigray, probably Daamat’s capital, together with a possible palace, smaller temples elsewhere, inscriptions in the Sabean language of South Arabia (although diverging from it as time passed), and sickles and other objects in bron... | A temple of the period to the astronomical gods of South Arabia survives at Yeha in modern Tigray, probably Daamat’s capital, together with a possible palace, smaller temples elsewhere, inscriptions in the Sabean language of South Arabia (although diverging from it as time passed), and sickles and other objects in bron... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 82,026 | 656 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_123 | #### BERBERS, PHOENICIANS, AND ROMANS
The use of copper in Egypt preceded by more than two thousand years evidence of its use elsewhere in North Africa. Egyptian dealings with people to their west were with ‘Libyan’ (ancestral Berber) pastoralists of Cyrenaica and the desert oases, whom they regarded as shaggy barbari... | BERBERS, PHOENICIANS, AND ROMANS
The use of copper in Egypt preceded by more than two thousand years evidence of its use elsewhere in North Africa. Egyptian dealings with people to their west were with ‘Libyan’ (ancestral Berber) pastoralists of Cyrenaica and the desert oases, whom they regarded as shaggy barbarians a... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 82,682 | 541 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_124 | predominant people were also ancestral Berbers. This region, from modern western Libya (Tripolitania) to the Atlantic, displayed extreme environmental contrasts: fertile coastal plains merging southwards into arid pasture and eventually desert, but broken by cultivable mountain outcrops. Ancient authors distinguished t... | predominant people were also ancestral Berbers. This region, from modern western Libya (Tripolitania) to the Atlantic, displayed extreme environmental contrasts: fertile coastal plains merging southwards into arid pasture and eventually desert, but broken by cultivable mountain outcrops. Ancient authors distinguished t... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 83,223 | 1,015 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_125 | Roman accounts stressed ethnic difference and conflict between agriculturalists and nomads, but modern research has shown much exchange and symbiosis between them. Both practised a religion centred on the forces of nature and fertility. Both appear to have had segmentary social and political systems in which each perso... | Roman accounts stressed ethnic difference and conflict between agriculturalists and nomads, but modern research has shown much exchange and symbiosis between them. Both practised a religion centred on the forces of nature and fertility. Both appear to have had segmentary social and political systems in which each perso... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 84,238 | 940 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_126 | Late in the second millennium BC, Phoenician traders from modern Lebanon began to colonise the North African coast. Their most powerful settlement was Carthage (‘New City’), established in the north of modern Tunisia soon after its traditional foundation date of 814 BC and governed by its wealthy citizens. The Phoenici... | Late in the second millennium BC, Phoenician traders from modern Lebanon began to colonise the North African coast. Their most powerful settlement was Carthage (‘New City’), established in the north of modern Tunisia soon after its traditional foundation date of 814 BC and governed by its wealthy citizens. The Phoenici... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 85,178 | 661 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_127 | Scarcely any Carthaginian records survive, but tradition says that the colonists confined themselves to the coast until the sixth century BC, when they extended the city’s territory nearly two hundred kilometres into the fertile plains of northern and eastern Tunisia, establishing an enduring pattern of foreign occupat... | Scarcely any Carthaginian records survive, but tradition says that the colonists confined themselves to the coast until the sixth century BC, when they extended the city’s territory nearly two hundred kilometres into the fertile plains of northern and eastern Tunisia, establishing an enduring pattern of foreign occupat... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 85,839 | 586 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_128 | penetrated desert trade. In the northern coastal plains of modern Tunisia, wealthy Carthaginians established great wheat farms, while on the eastern coast (the Sahel) they probably introduced the olives for which the region has since been famed. Ancient sources describe these farms as 'slave estates' and record frequen... | penetrated desert trade. In the northern coastal plains of modern Tunisia, wealthy Carthaginians established great wheat farms, while on the eastern coast (the Sahel) they probably introduced the olives for which the region has since been famed. Ancient sources describe these farms as 'slave estates' and record frequen... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 86,425 | 620 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_129 | In 241 BC Carthage's mercenary army lost its first disastrous war with the rising power of Rome. War and defeat led the city to demand more tax, tribute, and labour from surrounding Berbers and to seek greater control over them. Provincial governors for the first time ruled the hinterland. 'Punic Ditches' were construc... | In 241 BC Carthage's mercenary army lost its first disastrous war with the rising power of Rome. War and defeat led the city to demand more tax, tribute, and labour from surrounding Berbers and to seek greater control over them. Provincial governors for the first time ruled the hinterland. 'Punic Ditches' were construc... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 87,045 | 912 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_130 | In 150 BC his encroachments on Carthaginian territory provoked them into attacking him, only for his Roman patrons to raze Carthage to the ground and leave it almost deserted for a hundred years. Other Phoenician cities survived under Roman rule, but the chief local powers for the next century were Carthage's former Be... | In 150 BC his encroachments on Carthaginian territory provoked them into attacking him, only for his Roman patrons to raze Carthage to the ground and leave it almost deserted for a hundred years. Other Phoenician cities survived under Roman rule, but the chief local powers for the next century were Carthage's former Be... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 87,957 | 920 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_131 | Roman power centred in coastal towns surrounded by 'villa belts' of estates, governing and drawing wealth from the Berber hinterland. Rainfall was probably similar to that of today.¹⁰ By the birth of Christ, the coastal plains were already Rome's chief source of grain, taken mainly as tax or rent. During the next three... | Roman power centred in coastal towns surrounded by 'villa belts' of estates, governing and drawing wealth from the Berber hinterland. Rainfall was probably similar to that of today.¹⁰ By the birth of Christ, the coastal plains were already Rome's chief source of grain, taken mainly as tax or rent. During the next three... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 88,877 | 824 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_132 | interspersed, the villages gradually predominating as one moved southwards. Berber cultivators were quick to take advantage of new export markets. In the predesert of modern Libya, today almost bereft of cultivation, they constructed floodwater controls enabling them to grow olives on land whose average rainfall was on... | interspersed, the villages gradually predominating as one moved southwards. Berber cultivators were quick to take advantage of new export markets. In the predesert of modern Libya, today almost bereft of cultivation, they constructed floodwater controls enabling them to grow olives on land whose average rainfall was on... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 89,701 | 1,019 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_133 | The Gaetuli formed ephemeral coalitions to resist Roman interference, but they also relied on grain, harvest employment, and stubble for grazing in the northern agricultural zones to which they drove their stock each summer. The Romans sought to control interaction with pastoralists by constructing the line of ditches,... | The Gaetuli formed ephemeral coalitions to resist Roman interference, but they also relied on grain, harvest employment, and stubble for grazing in the northern agricultural zones to which they drove their stock each summer. The Romans sought to control interaction with pastoralists by constructing the line of ditches,... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 90,720 | 498 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_134 | Beyond the *limes*, important changes took place. As the Saharan region grew drier, its former pastoralists clustered into surviving oases. Communication between them depended on horses and the camels that came into widespread use during the first centuries AD. The predominant group in this early desert economy were th... | Beyond the limes, important changes took place. As the Saharan region grew drier, its former pastoralists clustered into surviving oases. Communication between them depended on horses and the camels that came into widespread use during the first centuries AD. The predominant group in this early desert economy were the ... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 91,218 | 1,003 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_135 | The Garamantian state peaked during the second and third centuries AD when the Roman colonies were also most prosperous. Both then entered a slow decline due chiefly to the instability of the wider Roman empire. By the late third century, Roman garrisons were withdrawing from the North African hinterland, although agri... | The Garamantian state peaked during the second and third centuries AD when the Roman colonies were also most prosperous. Both then entered a slow decline due chiefly to the instability of the wider Roman empire. By the late third century, Roman garrisons were withdrawing from the North African hinterland, although agri... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 92,221 | 912 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_137 | Whether Carthage transmitted metalworking to sub-Saharan Africa is one of the mysteries of African history. Copper and iron, the two metals at issue, both occur naturally, but rarely, in pure form. In this state, they can be worked by beating, especially if heated. Metalworking of this kind began about 8000 BC in weste... | Whether Carthage transmitted metalworking to sub-Saharan Africa is one of the mysteries of African history. Copper and iron, the two metals at issue, both occur naturally, but rarely, in pure form. In this state, they can be worked by beating, especially if heated. Metalworking of this kind began about 8000 BC in weste... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 93,158 | 903 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_138 | Some believe that it was also developed independently in eastern Asia, where copper industries existed to supply metallurgical skills. But the complexity of iron-smelting caused most regions to acquire the technique by diffusion. Whether Africans, partially isolated from the Eurasian core, discovered ironworking indepe... | Some believe that it was also developed independently in eastern Asia, where copper industries existed to supply metallurgical skills. But the complexity of iron-smelting caused most regions to acquire the technique by diffusion. Whether Africans, partially isolated from the Eurasian core, discovered ironworking indepe... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 94,061 | 359 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_139 | Because Africa’s rocks were so ancient, its natural wealth lay chiefly in minerals. Copper was a symbol of opulence used for display, much like gold elsewhere, but copper was rare (except in Central Africa) and the chief utilitarian metal was iron, which existed widely as low-grade ore. Iron had an especially great imp... | Because Africa’s rocks were so ancient, its natural wealth lay chiefly in minerals. Copper was a symbol of opulence used for display, much like gold elsewhere, but copper was rare (except in Central Africa) and the chief utilitarian metal was iron, which existed widely as low-grade ore. Iron had an especially great imp... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 94,420 | 1,008 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_140 | All radiocarbon dates need to be corrected by calibration. Many early iron-smelting sites in the northern half of the continent provide almost simultaneous dates from a period in the middle of the first millennium BC when radiocarbon dates are especially imprecise. At present, therefore, we simply do not understand the... | All radiocarbon dates need to be corrected by calibration. Many early iron-smelting sites in the northern half of the continent provide almost simultaneous dates from a period in the middle of the first millennium BC when radiocarbon dates are especially imprecise. At present, therefore, we simply do not understand the... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 95,428 | 449 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_142 | The earliest known metallurgy in Africa was the use of natural copper in Egypt in the late fifth millennium BC, followed by smelting of copper ore in the first half of the fourth millennium and the use of bronze (a harder copper alloy) after its invention in western Asia during the third millennium, the period when Egy... | The earliest known metallurgy in Africa was the use of natural copper in Egypt in the late fifth millennium BC, followed by smelting of copper ore in the first half of the fourth millennium and the use of bronze (a harder copper alloy) after its invention in western Asia during the third millennium, the period when Egy... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 95,915 | 987 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_143 | They worked iron at Carthage during the eighth or seventh century BC, but there is no direct evidence that they transmitted their skills southwards to West Africa, where iron-smelting technology was to differ greatly from that in Mediterranean lands. In West Africa, claims that copper and iron were smelted in modern Ni... | They worked iron at Carthage during the eighth or seventh century BC, but there is no direct evidence that they transmitted their skills southwards to West Africa, where iron-smelting technology was to differ greatly from that in Mediterranean lands. In West Africa, claims that copper and iron were smelted in modern Ni... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 96,902 | 852 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_144 | While this sculpture was being made, iron-working was spreading through West Africa, where dates from the fourth or third century BC have been found at Nsukka in southern Nigeria and at sites in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. There is also evidence of early iron-smelting in the Great Lakes region of East Africa. Smelting... | While this sculpture was being made, iron-working was spreading through West Africa, where dates from the fourth or third century BC have been found at Nsukka in southern Nigeria and at sites in Gabon and Congo-Brazzaville. There is also evidence of early iron-smelting in the Great Lakes region of East Africa. Smelting... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 97,754 | 625 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_145 | Linguistic evidence suggests that the first ironworkers in the Great Lakes region spoke Nilo-Saharan languages, but their skills and much of their technical vocabulary were adopted by the Bantu-speakers who reached this region from the west at the beginning of the first millennium BC. Their smelting sites are associate... | Linguistic evidence suggests that the first ironworkers in the Great Lakes region spoke Nilo-Saharan languages, but their skills and much of their technical vocabulary were adopted by the Bantu-speakers who reached this region from the west at the beginning of the first millennium BC. Their smelting sites are associate... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 98,379 | 714 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_146 | that the Bantu had added to their forest agriculture a range of food-producing activities suited to savanna life. Such a combination could have permitted population growth and might explain why Bantu-speakers came to prevail over the Nilo-Saharan-speakers from whom they probably gained their new agricultural skills and... | that the Bantu had added to their forest agriculture a range of food-producing activities suited to savanna life. Such a combination could have permitted population growth and might explain why Bantu-speakers came to prevail over the Nilo-Saharan-speakers from whom they probably gained their new agricultural skills and... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 99,093 | 637 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_147 | Yet this was only a small part of an expansion by which agriculture, iron-working, livestock, and Bantu languages spread from the Great Lakes region to nearly every corner of eastern and southern Africa. The earliest movement may have been southwards into the Upper Zambezi Valley, where cattle remains and pottery deriv... | Yet this was only a small part of an expansion by which agriculture, iron-working, livestock, and Bantu languages spread from the Great Lakes region to nearly every corner of eastern and southern Africa. The earliest movement may have been southwards into the Upper Zambezi Valley, where cattle remains and pottery deriv... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 99,730 | 991 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_148 | The makers of this pottery practised an iron-working technology with similarities to that of the Great Lakes region and favoured especially the fertile soils beneath East Africa's mountain outcrops, avoiding the plains occupied by stone-using pastoralists. While inland groups spread further southwards into Central Afri... | The makers of this pottery practised an iron-working technology with similarities to that of the Great Lakes region and favoured especially the fertile soils beneath East Africa's mountain outcrops, avoiding the plains occupied by stone-using pastoralists. While inland groups spread further southwards into Central Afri... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 100,721 | 931 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_149 | This brief account can do little justice to the complexity of the process by which the new culture spread through the southern half of Africa. This was no simple mass migration by conquering, culturally superior Bantu. Often different features of the new culture reached a region at different dates. Some Khoisan forager... | This brief account can do little justice to the complexity of the process by which the new culture spread through the southern half of Africa. This was no simple mass migration by conquering, culturally superior Bantu. Often different features of the new culture reached a region at different dates. Some Khoisan forager... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 101,652 | 572 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_150 | this merely a transmission of new cultural practices and languages from one already established population to the next. The speed of diffusion down the eastern coast to South Africa suggests a true population movement, probably in small and uncoordinated bands, as does the predominance achieved by Bantu languages and n... | this merely a transmission of new cultural practices and languages from one already established population to the next. The speed of diffusion down the eastern coast to South Africa suggests a true population movement, probably in small and uncoordinated bands, as does the predominance achieved by Bantu languages and n... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 102,224 | 1,008 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_151 | They selected microenvironments where they could utilise their skills and build their thatched wattle-and-daub huts in compact villages, averaging perhaps fifty metres across, a pattern generally adopted by Bantu frontiersmen in eastern and southern Africa. If they possessed cattle, they penned them at the centre of th... | They selected microenvironments where they could utilise their skills and build their thatched wattle-and-daub huts in compact villages, averaging perhaps fifty metres across, a pattern generally adopted by Bantu frontiersmen in eastern and southern Africa. If they possessed cattle, they penned them at the centre of th... | The frontiersmen of mankind | The impact of metals | EGYPT | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 103,232 | 852 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_152 | ## Christianity and Islam
WHILE BANTU-SPEAKING PEOPLES WERE COLONISING SOUTHERN AFRICA, the north was entering one of its greatest historical periods. Perhaps only in pharaonic times had it been more central to human progress than in the third and fourth centuries AD, when it was the intellectual spearhead of Christia... | Christianity and Islam
WHILE BANTU-SPEAKING PEOPLES WERE COLONISING SOUTHERN AFRICA, the north was entering one of its greatest historical periods. Perhaps only in pharaonic times had it been more central to human progress than in the third and fourth centuries AD, when it was the intellectual spearhead of Christianit... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 104,084 | 892 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_154 | Legend said that St Mark himself brought Christianity to Alexandria in AD 61. In reality the church in Jerusalem probably sent missionaries to Alexandria’s large Jewish community. The first firm evidence of Christianity there comes from an early second-century controversy between Jews who had and those who had not acce... | Legend said that St Mark himself brought Christianity to Alexandria in AD 61. In reality the church in Jerusalem probably sent missionaries to Alexandria’s large Jewish community. The first firm evidence of Christianity there comes from an early second-century controversy between Jews who had and those who had not acce... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 105,010 | 867 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_155 | By 325 Egypt had fifty-one known bishoprics and the Bible was widely available in the vernacular Coptic language (ancient Egyptian written in Greek script). The chief leaders of popular Christianity were monks: first individual hermits like St. Antony, who lived in the desert from about 285 to 305, then disciplined com... | By 325 Egypt had fifty-one known bishoprics and the Bible was widely available in the vernacular Coptic language (ancient Egyptian written in Greek script). The chief leaders of popular Christianity were monks: first individual hermits like St. Antony, who lived in the desert from about 285 to 305, then disciplined com... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 105,877 | 512 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_156 | AFRICANS: THE HISTORY OF A CONTINENT
tradition of famine relief. Both exemplified the indigenisation of Christianity at a time when Egypt's old religion and culture were disintegrating. In 312 Constantine made Christianity the Roman Empire's official religion. Later in that century, the authorities persecuted traditio... | AFRICANS: THE HISTORY OF A CONTINENT
tradition of famine relief. Both exemplified the indigenisation of Christianity at a time when Egypt's old religion and culture were disintegrating. In 312 Constantine made Christianity the Roman Empire's official religion. Later in that century, the authorities persecuted traditio... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 106,389 | 472 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_157 | Further west, Christianity may have reached the Maghrib through Greek or Roman rather than Jewish networks. The first firm evidence of its existence is the execution of twelve Christians at Carthage in AD 180 for refusing to sacrifice in honour of the emperor. Such early Christians appear to have come from every rank, ... | Further west, Christianity may have reached the Maghrib through Greek or Roman rather than Jewish networks. The first firm evidence of its existence is the execution of twelve Christians at Carthage in AD 180 for refusing to sacrifice in honour of the emperor. Such early Christians appear to have come from every rank, ... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 106,861 | 804 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_158 | Christianity did not threaten social rank and its teaching generally passed from older to younger people, but it fed upon conflicts of generation and gender in complex, patriarchal households, as it would later in tropical Africa. Among the first North Africans to be martyred, in the arena at Carthage in 203, was a wel... | Christianity did not threaten social rank and its teaching generally passed from older to younger people, but it fed upon conflicts of generation and gender in complex, patriarchal households, as it would later in tropical Africa. Among the first North Africans to be martyred, in the arena at Carthage in 203, was a wel... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 107,665 | 377 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_159 | We walked up to the prisoner's dock. All the others when questioned admitted their guilt. Then, when it came my turn, my father appeared with my son, dragged me from the step, and said: 'Perform the sacrifice – have pity on your baby!'
Hilarianus the governor . . . said to me: 'Have pity on your father's grey head; ha... | We walked up to the prisoner's dock. All the others when questioned admitted their guilt. Then, when it came my turn, my father appeared with my son, dragged me from the step, and said: 'Perform the sacrifice – have pity on your baby!'
Hilarianus the governor . . . said to me: 'Have pity on your father's grey head; ha... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 108,042 | 627 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_160 | Persecution was sporadic until 249–51, when the Emperor Decius, a soldier who thought Christianity was corrupting the state, launched more thorough repression. Martyrs were especially numerous in prosperous North Africa because the Church was growing most quickly there, with at least 150 bishoprics concentrated especia... | Persecution was sporadic until 249–51, when the Emperor Decius, a soldier who thought Christianity was corrupting the state, launched more thorough repression. Martyrs were especially numerous in prosperous North Africa because the Church was growing most quickly there, with at least 150 bishoprics concentrated especia... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [
"img_ref_6"
] | 1 | true | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 108,669 | 578 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_161 | the next half-century, Christianity spread rapidly in the countryside, especially in Numidia, the inland plains of modern Algeria, which were then being planted with olives. In this settler country of estates and Berber villages, Christianity was a religion of protest, infused with Berber traditions of statelessness an... | the next half-century, Christianity spread rapidly in the countryside, especially in Numidia, the inland plains of modern Algeria, which were then being planted with olives. In this settler country of estates and Berber villages, Christianity was a religion of protest, infused with Berber traditions of statelessness an... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 109,247 | 801 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_162 | Whereas the Catholics found followers especially among urban notables and in the Romanised farming region near the coast, Donatist leaders, although themselves mostly Latin-speaking urban intellectuals, won support chiefly among the non-Roman lower classes of the towns and, especially, the Berber cultivators and labour... | Whereas the Catholics found followers especially among urban notables and in the Romanised farming region near the coast, Donatist leaders, although themselves mostly Latin-speaking urban intellectuals, won support chiefly among the non-Roman lower classes of the towns and, especially, the Berber cultivators and labour... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 110,048 | 893 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_163 | In AD 411 Donatism became a criminal offence and the Catholic Church, now increasingly integrated with the Roman state, intensified repression. The Vandal invasion of North Africa in 429 interrupted this, but persecution resumed when Byzantine rule was established in 533. Donatism was gradually confined to its Numidian... | In AD 411 Donatism became a criminal offence and the Catholic Church, now increasingly integrated with the Roman state, intensified repression. The Vandal invasion of North Africa in 429 interrupted this, but persecution resumed when Byzantine rule was established in 533. Donatism was gradually confined to its Numidian... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 110,941 | 398 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_164 | To this day the Coptic Church of Egypt dates events not from the birth of Christ but from 'the era of the martyrs'. Yet it forgave its *traditores* and suffered only brief schism. Its crisis came later, following the Council of Chalcedon of 451, which tried to shore up the disintegrating Roman Empire by declaring the p... | To this day the Coptic Church of Egypt dates events not from the birth of Christ but from 'the era of the martyrs'. Yet it forgave its traditores and suffered only brief schism. Its crisis came later, following the Council of Chalcedon of 451, which tried to shore up the disintegrating Roman Empire by declaring the pri... | The frontiersmen of mankind | Christianity and Islam | CHRISTIANITY IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 111,339 | 1,017 | |
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_166 | # CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN
The Coptic Church had wide regional influence. Its first engagement was in Ethiopia. Following the collapse of Daamat between the fifth and third centuries BC, several small successor states occupied the northern Ethiopian plateau. The growth of Red Sea trade in Ptolemaic times enr... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN
The Coptic Church had wide regional influence. Its first engagement was in Ethiopia. Following the collapse of Daamat between the fifth and third centuries BC, several small successor states occupied the northern Ethiopian plateau. The growth of Red Sea trade in Ptolemaic times enric... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 112,386 | 852 | |||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_167 | The introduction of Christianity to Aksum is traditionally attributed to Frumentius, a young Christian trader kidnapped en route from Tyre to India. He became tutor to the future King Ezana, who officially adopted Christianity in about 333, after Frumentius had been consecrated in Alexandria as Aksum’s first bishop. Th... | The introduction of Christianity to Aksum is traditionally attributed to Frumentius, a young Christian trader kidnapped en route from Tyre to India. He became tutor to the future King Ezana, who officially adopted Christianity in about 333, after Frumentius had been consecrated in Alexandria as Aksum’s first bishop. Th... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 113,238 | 947 | |||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_168 | Moreover, because Christianity first influenced the court, it became a state religion, gradually extended among the people by priests and monks with royal backing. Between the fifth and seventh centuries, the scriptures were translated into Ge’ez (the Semitic lingua franca of Aksum, written in a script derived from the... | Moreover, because Christianity first influenced the court, it became a state religion, gradually extended among the people by priests and monks with royal backing. Between the fifth and seventh centuries, the scriptures were translated into Ge’ez (the Semitic lingua franca of Aksum, written in a script derived from the... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 114,185 | 829 | |||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_169 | The king who died in 630 was buried not in the capital but further to the southwest, where the merging of Aksumite and indigenous Cushitic cultures was to create the historic church and kingdom of Ethiopia.
| The king who died in 630 was buried not in the capital but further to the southwest, where the merging of Aksumite and indigenous Cushitic cultures was to create the historic church and kingdom of Ethiopia. | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 115,014 | 208 | |||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_170 | Christian origins in Nubia differed from those in Aksum, partly because Nubia immediately adjoined Christian Egypt. After the collapse of Meroe during the fourth century AD, Nubian-speaking rulers created three kingdoms in
42
AFRICANS: THE HISTORY OF A CONTINENT
| Christian origins in Nubia differed from those in Aksum, partly because Nubia immediately adjoined Christian Egypt. After the collapse of Meroe during the fourth century AD, Nubian-speaking rulers created three kingdoms in
42
AFRICANS: THE HISTORY OF A CONTINENT | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 115,222 | 266 | |||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_171 | the Nile Valley: Nobatia in the north with its capital at Faras, Makuria in the centre with its headquarters at Old Dongola, and Alwa in the south based on Soba (close to modern Khartoum). Symbols on pottery and other objects suggest Christian influence from Egypt by at least the fifth century, but the initiative for s... | the Nile Valley: Nobatia in the north with its capital at Faras, Makuria in the centre with its headquarters at Old Dongola, and Alwa in the south based on Soba (close to modern Khartoum). Symbols on pottery and other objects suggest Christian influence from Egypt by at least the fifth century, but the initiative for s... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 115,488 | 928 | |||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_172 | When the missionary Longinus arrived there from Constantinople in 580, 'he spake unto the king and to all his nobles the word of God, and they opened their understandings, and listened with joy to what he said; and after a few days' instruction, both the king himself was baptized and all his nobles; and subsequently, i... | When the missionary Longinus arrived there from Constantinople in 580, 'he spake unto the king and to all his nobles the word of God, and they opened their understandings, and listened with joy to what he said; and after a few days' instruction, both the king himself was baptized and all his nobles; and subsequently, i... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 116,416 | 364 | |||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_173 | The Nubian kingdoms remained Christian for nearly a thousand years. Nobatia and Alwa were Monophysite from the first and Makuria soon became so. Nubian bishops drew their authority from Alexandria and the Church dated events by the Coptic era of the martyrs. Yet Byzantium also exercised a powerful influence on elite cu... | The Nubian kingdoms remained Christian for nearly a thousand years. Nobatia and Alwa were Monophysite from the first and Makuria soon became so. Nubian bishops drew their authority from Alexandria and the Church dated events by the Coptic era of the martyrs. Yet Byzantium also exercised a powerful influence on elite cu... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 116,780 | 864 | |||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_174 | Some historians attribute the ultimate disappearance of Nubian Christianity to a failure to adapt as fully to the local culture as did Ethiopian Christianity, which was more isolated from external influence. Nubian paintings, for example, always depicted Christ and the saints with white faces in contrast to Nubians, a ... | Some historians attribute the ultimate disappearance of Nubian Christianity to a failure to adapt as fully to the local culture as did Ethiopian Christianity, which was more isolated from external influence. Nubian paintings, for example, always depicted Christ and the saints with white faces in contrast to Nubians, a ... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 117,644 | 454 | |||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_175 | #### ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA
The expansion of Arab power and the Islamic religion following the Prophet Muhammad's death in AD 632 was the central process in world history for the next 400 years. During that time Islam became the predominant faith throughout North Africa and established footholds in both West and East A... | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA
The expansion of Arab power and the Islamic religion following the Prophet Muhammad's death in AD 632 was the central process in world history for the next 400 years. During that time Islam became the predominant faith throughout North Africa and established footholds in both West and East Africa... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 118,098 | 568 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_176 | Some four thousand Muslims commanded by Amr ibn al-As invaded Egypt in December 639. Within less than three years, they had conquered the Byzantine Empire's richest province. They were helped by deep antagonism between Byzantine rulers and Monophysite subjects, who confined their resistance to defending their villages.... | Some four thousand Muslims commanded by Amr ibn al-As invaded Egypt in December 639. Within less than three years, they had conquered the Byzantine Empire's richest province. They were helped by deep antagonism between Byzantine rulers and Monophysite subjects, who confined their resistance to defending their villages.... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 118,666 | 903 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_177 | Four years later they defeated the main Byzantine army near Sufetula (Sbeitla) in modern Tunisia and gained access to the fertile heartland of successive imperialisms in North Africa, more rural than in Roman times and somewhat depopulated by a great plague in 542, but still rich in grain and olives. At this point, how... | Four years later they defeated the main Byzantine army near Sufetula (Sbeitla) in modern Tunisia and gained access to the fertile heartland of successive imperialisms in North Africa, more rural than in Roman times and somewhat depopulated by a great plague in 542, but still rich in grain and olives. At this point, how... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 119,569 | 985 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_178 | For four centuries the Berber peoples of the inland plains and mountains had been regaining strength from Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines. Now they mounted the stiffest resistance the Arabs met during their conquests, restricting Arab power to the colonial heartland of Ifriqiya. When a Muslim army finally conquered wes... | For four centuries the Berber peoples of the inland plains and mountains had been regaining strength from Romans, Vandals, and Byzantines. Now they mounted the stiffest resistance the Arabs met during their conquests, restricting Arab power to the colonial heartland of Ifriqiya. When a Muslim army finally conquered wes... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 120,554 | 536 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_179 | In North Africa, alone in the continent, Islamisation drew its initial impulse from conquest, but the victors seldom compelled the conquered to accept their faith. Their concern was to establish an Islamic social order, in the confidence that individuals would gradually conform to it. In Egypt, therefore, they offered ... | In North Africa, alone in the continent, Islamisation drew its initial impulse from conquest, but the victors seldom compelled the conquered to accept their faith. Their concern was to establish an Islamic social order, in the confidence that individuals would gradually conform to it. In Egypt, therefore, they offered ... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 121,090 | 666 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_180 | increased and Christians were gradually excluded from office, as one of several social and economic pressures to adopt Islam. By 717–20 so many Copts were becoming Muslims to escape the heavy taxes needed to finance Arab wars that converts were declared still liable to the land tax. At the same period, official busines... | increased and Christians were gradually excluded from office, as one of several social and economic pressures to adopt Islam. By 717–20 so many Copts were becoming Muslims to escape the heavy taxes needed to finance Arab wars that converts were declared still liable to the land tax. At the same period, official busines... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 121,756 | 748 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_181 | The Umayyad Caliphate, which lasted until 750, was effectively an Arab kingdom led by the Meccan aristocracy. Egypt in particular was dominated by an Arab garrison. When the Abbasids gained power in 750, however, they relied on non-Arab nationalities and moved their capital eastwards to Baghdad, thereby encouraging Nor... | The Umayyad Caliphate, which lasted until 750, was effectively an Arab kingdom led by the Meccan aristocracy. Egypt in particular was dominated by an Arab garrison. When the Abbasids gained power in 750, however, they relied on non-Arab nationalities and moved their capital eastwards to Baghdad, thereby encouraging Nor... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 122,504 | 928 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_182 | A group in the Atlantic Plains of Morocco claimed to possess a Koran in the Berber language and maintained its heterodoxy until the eleventh century. But the chief vehicle of Berber aspirations was Kharijism, an extreme wing of Islam born in 657 during the civil war that created the Umayyad Caliphate. It taught the abs... | A group in the Atlantic Plains of Morocco claimed to possess a Koran in the Berber language and maintained its heterodoxy until the eleventh century. But the chief vehicle of Berber aspirations was Kharijism, an extreme wing of Islam born in 657 during the civil war that created the Umayyad Caliphate. It taught the abs... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 123,432 | 805 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_183 | When the Abbasids proved equally repressive, Kharijites formed several zealous communities in the North African hinterland, especially at Tahert in western Algeria, which from 761–2 became the core of a Kharijite state. In 789–90 a refugee descendant of the Prophet, Idris, created a kingdom based in Fes that became the... | When the Abbasids proved equally repressive, Kharijites formed several zealous communities in the North African hinterland, especially at Tahert in western Algeria, which from 761–2 became the core of a Kharijite state. In 789–90 a refugee descendant of the Prophet, Idris, created a kingdom based in Fes that became the... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 124,237 | 653 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_185 | During the following five centuries, North Africa bred several of Islam’s most creative dynasties. The first, the Fatimids, were a Shia family claiming descent from the Prophet through his daughter Fatima. They came to power in Kairwan in 910 on the back of a Berber revolt, incorporated the Aghlabid kingdom, temporaril... | During the following five centuries, North Africa bred several of Islam’s most creative dynasties. The first, the Fatimids, were a Shia family claiming descent from the Prophet through his daughter Fatima. They came to power in Kairwan in 910 on the back of a Berber revolt, incorporated the Aghlabid kingdom, temporaril... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 124,918 | 1,016 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_186 | Townsmen owned great estates carved out by victorious ancestors and worked by the slaves for which the region was famed. Initially the slaves were Berbers captured during the conquest; thereafter, they were white and black slaves imported from Europe and tropical Africa. Cultivation of sorghum and hard wheat expanded s... | Townsmen owned great estates carved out by victorious ancestors and worked by the slaves for which the region was famed. Initially the slaves were Berbers captured during the conquest; thereafter, they were white and black slaves imported from Europe and tropical Africa. Cultivation of sorghum and hard wheat expanded s... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 125,934 | 959 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_187 | ‘It was the heyday of the bourgeoisie’, their historian has written,³ a commercial world dominated by family firms of many faiths, operating through partnerships and agencies spread throughout the Mediterranean, profiting from a freedom of movement and religious toleration that caused Jewish merchants to call Fatimid E... | ‘It was the heyday of the bourgeoisie’, their historian has written,³ a commercial world dominated by family firms of many faiths, operating through partnerships and agencies spread throughout the Mediterranean, profiting from a freedom of movement and religious toleration that caused Jewish merchants to call Fatimid E... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 126,893 | 1,011 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_189 | In Ifriqiya the shift of power and prosperity to Egypt led the Fatimids’ Berber lieutenants, the Zirids, to renounce their allegiance in 1048. Tradition alleged
46
AFRICANS: THE HISTORY OF A CONTINENT
| In Ifriqiya the shift of power and prosperity to Egypt led the Fatimids’ Berber lieutenants, the Zirids, to renounce their allegiance in 1048. Tradition alleged
46
AFRICANS: THE HISTORY OF A CONTINENT | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 127,978 | 204 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_190 | (without foundation) that the Fatimids replied by encouraging the Banu Hilal and other nomadic Arab tribes who had entered Egypt to move on westwards into Ifriqiya. The Hilal, wrote Ibn Khaldun, 'gained power over the country and ruined it.' In 1057 they sacked Kairwan. The Zirids shifted their capital and their attent... | (without foundation) that the Fatimids replied by encouraging the Banu Hilal and other nomadic Arab tribes who had entered Egypt to move on westwards into Ifriqiya. The Hilal, wrote Ibn Khaldun, 'gained power over the country and ruined it.' In 1057 they sacked Kairwan. The Zirids shifted their capital and their attent... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 128,182 | 985 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_191 | Loss of naval control of the Mediterranean to the Byzantines during the tenth century deprived Ifriqiya of its northern slave supply, which further damaged the rural economy and contributed to repeated famines after 1004. These and the Zirids' political weakness brought commercial decay to Kairwan even before the Banu ... | Loss of naval control of the Mediterranean to the Byzantines during the tenth century deprived Ifriqiya of its northern slave supply, which further damaged the rural economy and contributed to repeated famines after 1004. These and the Zirids' political weakness brought commercial decay to Kairwan even before the Banu ... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 129,167 | 535 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_192 | Initially the chief beneficiary was the previously fragmented western Maghrib, where nomad ambitions coincided with economic diversification and the full internalisation of Islam among its Berber converts to produce a period of great splendour. It began with the Almoravid movement, which originated among the nomadic Sa... | Initially the chief beneficiary was the previously fragmented western Maghrib, where nomad ambitions coincided with economic diversification and the full internalisation of Islam among its Berber converts to produce a period of great splendour. It began with the Almoravid movement, which originated among the nomadic Sa... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 129,702 | 1,009 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_193 | Three years later they entered Muslim Spain to organise its resistance to Christian expansion. This military supremacy was backed by capturing much of the West African gold trade and by developing the grainlands of Morocco's Atlantic Plains. Prosperity enabled the Almoravids to introduce into Morocco the elegant Islami... | Three years later they entered Muslim Spain to organise its resistance to Christian expansion. This military supremacy was backed by capturing much of the West African gold trade and by developing the grainlands of Morocco's Atlantic Plains. Prosperity enabled the Almoravids to introduce into Morocco the elegant Islami... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 130,711 | 596 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_195 | These criticisms animated the Almohad (Unitarian) movement, which was to supplant the Almoravids. It arose not among nomads but among their long-standing enemies, the Berber agriculturalists of the Atlas Mountains. Its leader, Muhammad ibn Tumart, was born there in about 1080 but educated in Baghdad, where he learned t... | These criticisms animated the Almohad (Unitarian) movement, which was to supplant the Almoravids. It arose not among nomads but among their long-standing enemies, the Berber agriculturalists of the Atlas Mountains. Its leader, Muhammad ibn Tumart, was born there in about 1080 but educated in Baghdad, where he learned t... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 131,335 | 969 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_196 | But they were less legalistic than the Almoravids, enabling *sufi* brotherhoods to establish themselves during the late twelfth century throughout the region, where they were to become the core of popular Islam. The decline of the overextended Almohad empire began with its defeat by Christian forces in Spain in 1212 an... | But they were less legalistic than the Almoravids, enabling sufi brotherhoods to establish themselves during the late twelfth century throughout the region, where they were to become the core of popular Islam. The decline of the overextended Almohad empire began with its defeat by Christian forces in Spain in 1212 and ... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 132,304 | 735 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_197 | Marinid rule witnessed general decline in the Maghrib. An Almohad successor dynasty, the Hafsids, ruled Ifriqiya until the Ottomans conquered it in the sixteenth century, while Zayyanids, another Zanata dynasty based in Tlemcen, exercised such central authority as existed in western Algeria. Reliant on mercenary troops... | Marinid rule witnessed general decline in the Maghrib. An Almohad successor dynasty, the Hafsids, ruled Ifriqiya until the Ottomans conquered it in the sixteenth century, while Zayyanids, another Zanata dynasty based in Tlemcen, exercised such central authority as existed in western Algeria. Reliant on mercenary troops... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 133,039 | 814 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_198 | In Egypt, likewise, the Black Death ended nearly four centuries of prosperity and power unequalled since the New Kingdom. The Fatimids had initiated this prosperity. Saladin revitalised the state after he seized power in 1171, making Egypt the champion of Islam against Crusaders and Mongols. In 1250 his Ayyubid dynasty... | In Egypt, likewise, the Black Death ended nearly four centuries of prosperity and power unequalled since the New Kingdom. The Fatimids had initiated this prosperity. Saladin revitalised the state after he seized power in 1171, making Egypt the champion of Islam against Crusaders and Mongols. In 1250 his Ayyubid dynasty... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 133,853 | 660 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_199 | a caste so exclusive that even their sons were barred from it. This system was designed to combine the virtues of nomadic valour and civilised organisation. Mamluk generals ruled Egypt until 1517. They reorganised its land into fiefs from which officers drew tribute to support themselves and their men. They extended ir... | a caste so exclusive that even their sons were barred from it. This system was designed to combine the virtues of nomadic valour and civilised organisation. Mamluk generals ruled Egypt until 1517. They reorganised its land into fiefs from which officers drew tribute to support themselves and their men. They extended ir... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 134,513 | 649 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_200 | Yet this prosperity was already threatened. By the early fourteenth century, the international trading system stretching from Flanders to China, with Cairo at its core, was breaking down as the Mongol Empire disintegrated in Central Asia, leaving Egypt as a channel through which oriental goods passed to the increasingl... | Yet this prosperity was already threatened. By the early fourteenth century, the international trading system stretching from Flanders to China, with Cairo at its core, was breaking down as the Mongol Empire disintegrated in Central Asia, leaving Egypt as a channel through which oriental goods passed to the increasingl... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 135,162 | 979 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_201 | Europe was outpacing the Islamic world in technology, business organisation, and agricultural production on virgin land no longer available in North Africa.
| Europe was outpacing the Islamic world in technology, business organisation, and agricultural production on virgin land no longer available in North Africa. | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 136,141 | 158 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_202 | Relative decline became crisis when the Black Death reached Egypt along the trade routes from the Asiatic steppe. Egypt had suffered sporadic plague since the last great epidemic in the sixth century, but that had been bubonic plague, transmitted by fleas from rats to humans, whereas the Black Death was also the more i... | Relative decline became crisis when the Black Death reached Egypt along the trade routes from the Asiatic steppe. Egypt had suffered sporadic plague since the last great epidemic in the sixth century, but that had been bubonic plague, transmitted by fleas from rats to humans, whereas the Black Death was also the more i... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 136,299 | 631 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_203 | In eighteenth months, the epidemic killed perhaps one-quarter or one-third of Egypt's population.$^{8}$ For urban working people, the consequence was higher wages, but the immobility of irrigated agriculture enabled Mamluks to respond to rural depopulation by trying to squeeze an undiminished revenue from fewer cultiva... | In eighteenth months, the epidemic killed perhaps one-quarter or one-third of Egypt's population.$^{8}$ For urban working people, the consequence was higher wages, but the immobility of irrigated agriculture enabled Mamluks to respond to rural depopulation by trying to squeeze an undiminished revenue from fewer cultiva... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 136,930 | 750 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_204 | *Christianity and Islam*
49
of the whole military class as firearms rendered their skills obsolete. Most devastating of all was that pneumatic plague remained recurrent after the Black Death, unlike in Europe. During the next 160 years Egypt suffered twenty-eight plague outbreaks, which were probably more destructive... | Christianity and Islam
49
of the whole military class as firearms rendered their skills obsolete. Most devastating of all was that pneumatic plague remained recurrent after the Black Death, unlike in Europe. During the next 160 years Egypt suffered twenty-eight plague outbreaks, which were probably more destructive c... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 137,680 | 705 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_205 | in the middle of the eighth [fourteenth] century, civilization both in the East and the West was visited by a destructive plague which devastated nations and caused populations to vanish. . . . Civilization decreased with the decrease of mankind. Cities and buildings were laid waste, roads and way signs were obliterate... | in the middle of the eighth [fourteenth] century, civilization both in the East and the West was visited by a destructive plague which devastated nations and caused populations to vanish. . . . Civilization decreased with the decrease of mankind. Cities and buildings were laid waste, roads and way signs were obliterate... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | ISLAM IN NORTH AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 138,385 | 665 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_206 | #### TRADE AND ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA
The Arab conquest of North Africa led to the transmission of Islam across the Sahara to the West African savanna. Agriculture and iron-using existed here before the birth of Christ, but the first Muslims who knelt their camels on the northern fringe of the savanna also found towns a... | TRADE AND ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA
The Arab conquest of North Africa led to the transmission of Islam across the Sahara to the West African savanna. Agriculture and iron-using existed here before the birth of Christ, but the first Muslims who knelt their camels on the northern fringe of the savanna also found towns and a ... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | TRADE AND ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 139,050 | 564 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_207 | The best evidence for this comes from archaeological excavations at Old Jenne, a site in modern Mali on the southern edge of the internal Niger delta, where floodplain agriculture met transport routes northwards to the savanna and southwards to the forest. From about 2000 BC, declining rainfall drew fishermen from the ... | The best evidence for this comes from archaeological excavations at Old Jenne, a site in modern Mali on the southern edge of the internal Niger delta, where floodplain agriculture met transport routes northwards to the savanna and southwards to the forest. From about 2000 BC, declining rainfall drew fishermen from the ... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | TRADE AND ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 139,614 | 996 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_209 | show occupational specialisation, but their graves reveal little social differentiation and there is no evidence of powerful rulers or major public buildings, suggesting that the region achieved social complexity without state formation in a manner later repeated by some other African stateless societies. Townsmen owne... | show occupational specialisation, but their graves reveal little social differentiation and there is no evidence of powerful rulers or major public buildings, suggesting that the region achieved social complexity without state formation in a manner later repeated by some other African stateless societies. Townsmen owne... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | TRADE AND ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 140,648 | 986 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_210 | This pre-Islamic commerce may help to explain one of the mysteries of African history: the discovery at Igbo-Ukwu, in southeastern Nigeria, of the grave-goods buried with a ninth-century ruler or ritual leader, including bronze artefacts made from local metals, in African style and showing a superb technical skill that... | This pre-Islamic commerce may help to explain one of the mysteries of African history: the discovery at Igbo-Ukwu, in southeastern Nigeria, of the grave-goods buried with a ninth-century ruler or ritual leader, including bronze artefacts made from local metals, in African style and showing a superb technical skill that... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | TRADE AND ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 141,634 | 759 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_211 | By contrast, the two Hellenistic glass beads found in the late pre-Christian deposits at Old Jenne suggest that trade across the Sahara can then have been on only the smallest scale. The Garamantes of the Fezzan had exported ivory and a few slaves northwards in Roman times. That was an especially arid period in the Sah... | By contrast, the two Hellenistic glass beads found in the late pre-Christian deposits at Old Jenne suggest that trade across the Sahara can then have been on only the smallest scale. The Garamantes of the Fezzan had exported ivory and a few slaves northwards in Roman times. That was an especially arid period in the Sah... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | TRADE AND ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 142,393 | 972 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_212 | On the slave route, a new trading base was established in the eighth century in the eastern Fezzan at Zawila, a Kharijite Berber settlement that became the main supplier of black slaves to Ifriqiya, Egypt, and the Middle East. It enjoyed a relatively easy desert crossing to the northern environs of Lake Chad. Here the ... | On the slave route, a new trading base was established in the eighth century in the eastern Fezzan at Zawila, a Kharijite Berber settlement that became the main supplier of black slaves to Ifriqiya, Egypt, and the Middle East. It enjoyed a relatively easy desert crossing to the northern environs of Lake Chad. Here the ... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | TRADE AND ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 143,365 | 505 | ||
john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf_chunk_213 | Kanem, possibly created as early as the late sixth century. Lacking gold, Kanem and its successor, Borno, were to be the main suppliers of slaves from the West African savanna to the Islamic world for a thousand years, buying in return horses to facilitate further slave-raiding. Many slaves probably went to the Aghlabi... | Kanem, possibly created as early as the late sixth century. Lacking gold, Kanem and its successor, Borno, were to be the main suppliers of slaves from the West African savanna to the Islamic world for a thousand years, buying in return horses to facilitate further slave-raiding. Many slaves probably went to the Aghlabi... | CHRISTIANITY IN ETHIOPIA AND SUDAN | TRADE AND ISLAM IN WEST AFRICA | [] | 0 | false | john_iliffe_africans_the_history_of_a_continentbookos.org_.pdf | 143,870 | 580 |
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