Datasets:

ulamai
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UnsolvedEarth

Release UnsolvedEarth v1.3.0: 308 Tier-A Gold problems, 100% LaTeX governing equations, 60k-edge knowledge graph, 93.7% open-sentence grounding, 0 colons/case artifacts

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metadata

language:
  - en
license: cc-by-4.0
pretty_name: >-
  UnsolvedEarth: A Living Benchmark of 20,000 Open Problems in Earth and
  Environmental Sciences
size_categories:
  - 10K<n<100K
task_categories:
  - question-answering
  - text-generation
  - feature-extraction
tags:
  - earth-sciences
  - environmental-science
  - geophysics
  - geology
  - geochemistry
  - paleoclimate
  - geomorphology
  - atmospheric-science
  - climate-dynamics
  - cryosphere
  - oceanography
  - hydrology
  - critical-zone
  - biogeochemistry
  - open-problems
  - scientific-reasoning
configs:
  - config_name: default
    data_files:
      - split: train
        path: problems.json

UnsolvedEarth (`ulamai/UnsolvedEarth`) — v1.3.0

UnsolvedEarth is a rigorous, provenance-verified, rights-clean, and compact benchmark dataset of 20,000 open and partially solved scientific problems across the Earth and environmental sciences, paired with a 100-record archived audit and calibration style pack (20,100 total records in problems.json, ~91.13 MB total). Modeled on ulamai/UnsolvedMath, UnsolvedEarth spans the planetary interior to the upper atmosphere, deep time ($4.5,\mathrm{Ga}$) to synoptic events, and pore-scale interfacial reactions to coupled global Earth-system feedbacks.

Key Release Metrics (v1.3.0)

Metric	Value
Total Records (`problems.json`)	20,100 (~91.13 MB compact JSON)
Published Open & Partially Solved Problems (`published = true`)	20,000 (`UEARTH-000001` – `UEARTH-020000`)
Curated Tier-A Horizon-Scan Gold Benchmark Problems	308 (`UEARTH-000001` – `UEARTH-000308`)
Archived Audit & Style-Pack Records (`published = false`)	100 (`UEARTH-020001` – `UEARTH-020100`)
Primary Scientific Categories / Specialized Sub-Disciplines	15 Categories / 75 Sub-Disciplines
Open-Sentence Grounded Statements	93.7% (18,748/20,000 directly grounded in extracted open-question clauses)
Mathematical Governing-Equation Coverage (`precise_statement` & `governing_relations`)	100.0% (20,000/20,000 published problems include formal LaTeX PDEs, scaling laws, or dimensionless numbers)
Cross-Problem Knowledge Graph (`related_problems`)	60,000 directed links (*3 linked `UEARTH-` IDs per published problem**: 2 within-subdiscipline + 1 cross-category coupled link)
Unique Peer-Reviewed Sources Cited Across Dataset	20,614
Peer-Reviewed References per Published Problem (`references`)	4 distinct DOI-backed peer-reviewed papers (primary source + 2 topic-matched corroborating studies + consensus synthesis)
Scope & Hygiene Rejections Filtered During Triage	18,543
Near-Duplicate Pairs Filtered (`Jaccard >= 0.45`)	366 (0 remaining pairs with $\text{Jaccard} \ge 0.48$)
Published Status Split	`open`: 16,916, `partially_solved`: 3,084
Published Difficulty Split	`medium` (L3): 3,850, `hard` (L4): 13,531, `very_hard` (L5): 2,619
Literature Verification Date (`literature_checked_at`)	`2026-10-16`
Metadata License	`CC-BY-4.0` (compact problem-centric representation; no raw paper files stored)

15 Primary Earth & Environmental Categories

ID	Category Slug	Category Name	Published Problems	Scope Summary
1	`deep_earth_tectonics_geodynamics_geomagnetism`	Deep Earth, Tectonics, Geodynamics, and Geomagnetism	1,200	Core, mantle, lithosphere, plates, deformation, geodesy, magnetic field, and deep exchange.
2	`earthquakes_volcanoes_tsunamis_geohazards`	Earthquakes, Volcanoes, Tsunamis, and Geohazards	1,060	Hazard-generating physical processes, fault slip modes, magma storage, cascading hazards, recurrence, and footprints.
3	`geochemistry_mineralogy_petrology_earth_materials`	Geochemistry, Mineralogy, Petrology, and Earth Materials	1,180	Elemental and isotopic cycles, rocks, minerals, melts, fluids, redox, and material properties.
4	`geologic_time_paleoclimate_stratigraphy_earth_history`	Geologic Time, Paleoclimate, Stratigraphy, and Earth History	1,370	Chronology, proxy archives, ancient environments, long-term planetary evolution, oxygenation, and mass transitions.
5	`geomorphology_sediments_surface_processes`	Geomorphology, Sediments, and Surface Processes	1,280	Landscape evolution, erosion, sediment transport, deposition, weathering, and sediment connectivity.
6	`atmosphere_weather_atmospheric_chemistry`	Atmosphere, Weather, and Atmospheric Chemistry	1,560	Atmospheric dynamics, convection, clouds, precipitation, composition, oxidation capacity, aerosols, and weather predictability.
7	`climate_dynamics_feedbacks_predictability_extremes`	Climate Dynamics, Feedbacks, Predictability, and Extremes	1,980	Climate response, modes of variability, feedbacks, attribution, tipping behavior, and hydroclimatic extremes.
8	`cryosphere_permafrost_sea_level`	Cryosphere, Permafrost, and Sea Level	1,110	Ice sheets, glaciers, snowpack, sea ice, permafrost thaw and carbon, ice shelves, grounding lines, and sea-level components.
9	`physical_oceanography_ocean_circulation`	Physical Oceanography and Ocean Circulation	1,280	Ocean dynamics, diapycnal and mesoscale mixing, internal waves, ventilation, overturning circulation, heat, and freshwater transport.
10	`marine_biogeochemistry_seafloor_ocean_ecosystem`	Marine Biogeochemistry, Seafloor, and Ocean–Ecosystem Coupling	1,280	Ocean carbon biological pump, nutrients, deoxygenation, acidification, trace metals, sediments, hydrothermal exchange, and coupled marine response.
11	`hydrology_groundwater_water_cycle`	Hydrology, Groundwater, and the Water Cycle	1,450	Catchments, rivers, lakes, wetlands, groundwater recharge, aquifer flow, drought propagation, flood generation, and water budgets.
12	`soils_critical_zone_terrestrial_biogeochemistry`	Soils, Critical Zone, and Terrestrial Biogeochemistry	1,280	Soil formation, deep regolith architecture, weathering fronts, soil organic carbon persistence, nutrients, and bedrock-to-canopy coupling.
13	`ecosystem_earth_interactions_land_change`	Ecosystem–Earth Interactions, Land Change, and Environmental Response	1,480	Biosphere–atmosphere feedbacks, disturbance regimes, wildfire dynamics, land-use forcing, ecosystem resilience, and Earth-system consequences.
14	`pollution_contaminant_fate_environmental_quality`	Pollution, Contaminant Fate, and Environmental Quality	1,390	Contaminant sources, geochemical/photochemical transformations, fate and transport, mixtures, persistence, exposure formation, and recovery.
15	`coasts_deltas_drylands_urban_coupled_systems`	Coasts, Deltas, Drylands, Urban Environments, and Coupled Human–Earth Systems	1,100	Boundary environments, delta morphodynamics, land subsidence, urban boundary-layer climate and hydrology, drylands, and compound change.
	Total Published		20,000

Problem Sets & Flagship Sources (`sets.json`)

Set ID	Set Slug	Name	Published Problems	Description
1	`nasem_earth_in_time_and_decadal_surveys`	National Academies Decadal Surveys (Earth in Time, Thriving on Our Changing Planet, Forecasting the Ocean)	57	High-priority solid-Earth, surface-Earth, ocean, and Earth-observation science questions from U.S. National Academies consensus studies.
2	`iahs_unsolved_problems_in_hydrology`	IAHS Twenty-Three Unsolved Problems in Hydrology & HELPING Decade	1,458	Community-elicited open problems in catchment hydrology, groundwater, hydroclimatic variability, ecohydrology, and nonstationary water systems.
3	`sz4d_iodp_and_solid_earth_frontiers`	SZ4D, IODP 2050, EarthScope & Solid-Earth Science Frameworks	3,394	Open questions on plate tectonics, mantle geodynamics, subduction fault slip, magmatic drivers of eruptions, subseafloor biosphere, and cascading geohazards.
4	`wcrp_wwrp_ipcc_climate_and_atmosphere`	WCRP, WWRP, IGAC & IPCC AR6 Knowledge Gaps	3,527	Climate sensitivity, cloud-aerosol microphysics, atmospheric oxidation capacity, circulation regimes, extremes attribution, and subseasonal-to-decadal predictability.
5	`scar_icarp_cryosphere_and_polar_horizon_scans`	SCAR Antarctic Horizon Scan, ICARP IV Arctic & Cryosphere Priorities	1,113	Priority questions on ice-sheet grounding-line stability, ice-shelf buttressing, sea-ice dynamics, Southern/Arctic Ocean overturning, and permafrost carbon feedbacks.
6	`oceanobs_goos_geotraces_marine_science`	OceanObs, GOOS 2030, GEOTRACES & Marine Biogeochemistry Syntheses	2,590	Open questions on ocean heat and carbon uptake, diapycnal mixing, trace-metal cycling, biological carbon pump, deoxygenation, and benthic-pelagic coupling.
7	`critical_zone_soils_and_geomorphology_syntheses`	Critical Zone Networks, IUSS Soil Science & Geomorphology Syntheses	2,555	Bedrock-to-canopy weathering fronts, regolith formation, mineral-associated soil organic carbon persistence, sediment connectivity, and landscape evolution.
8	`pages_paleoclimate_and_earth_history_archives`	PAGES, ICS Stratigraphy & Deep-Time Earth History Syntheses	1,367	Geochronology, proxy calibration, Precambrian oxygenation, Phanerozoic mass extinctions, hyperthermals, and Pleistocene glacial-interglacial transitions.
9	`unep_ipbes_contaminants_and_coupled_systems`	UNEP Frontiers, IPBES, Contaminant Fate & Coupled Human–Earth Systems	3,939	Environmental fate and transformation of PFAS, microplastics, trace contaminants, wildfire smoke aging, biosphere-climate feedbacks, deltas, drylands, and urban systems.
10	`peer_reviewed_earth_and_environmental_literature`	Peer-Reviewed Earth & Environmental Review and Research Literature Corpus	0	Explicit open questions and unresolved mechanistic gaps extracted from peer-reviewed Earth and environmental science journals (AGU, EGU, Nature, Science, Elsevier, GSA, AMS, ACS, RSC).

Flagship Tier-A sources include the National Academies (A Vision for NSF Earth Sciences 2020–2030: Earth in Time; Thriving on Our Changing Planet; Forecasting the Ocean: 2025–2035; Volcanic Eruptions and Their Repose: ERUPT), the IAHS Twenty-Three Unsolved Problems in Hydrology (UPH) and HELPING decade synthesis, the SCAR Antarctic and Southern Ocean Science Horizon Scan, the SZ4D Implementation Plan, the 2050 Science Framework for Scientific Ocean Drilling (IODP), WCRP Grand Challenges, IPCC AR6 Working Group I, Critical Zone Collaborative Network syntheses, GEOTRACES, GO2NE, the Permafrost Carbon Network, and PAGES paleoclimate syntheses, paired with strictly vetted open-problem formulations from peer-reviewed Earth and environmental science journals.

Compact Problem Record Schema (`problems.json`)

Every record in problems.json contains strictly the problem formulations, formal governing equations, Earth-system taxonomy, knowledge-graph links, scientific context, and peer-reviewed reference citations needed to state and verify the problem:

id, problem_number, title
statement (canonical research question), plain_statement (accessible formulation), precise_statement (mechanistic/boundary-value formulation with embedded LaTeX governing equation)
category, category_id, category_name, subdiscipline, set_id, question_types
earth_system_components, environmental_media, processes
spatial_scale, region, temporal_scale, geologic_era
observables (directly measured quantities), inferred_properties (latent states/fluxes inferred via inversion or modeling), & governing_relations (2 formal LaTeX governing equations / dimensionless groups for the sub-discipline)
background (literature context and why the question remains open) & what_would_settle_it (decisive observations, experiments, or coupled model breakthroughs)
status (open, partially_solved, or archived solved/premise_rejected/not_well_posed), consensus_state, research_classification, published
difficulty, difficulty_level, origin_year, proposed_by, literature_checked_at
related_problems (Cross-Problem Knowledge Graph: 3 linked UEARTH-* problem IDs — 2 within-subdiscipline + 1 cross-category coupled problem)
reference_dois (list of 4 peer-reviewed DOIs) & references (4 formatted citations per published problem)

Mandatory Dataset Warnings & Responsible Use

Status Is Time-Indexed: Every status classification (open, partially_solved, solved, premise_rejected) is a time-stamped literature judgment (literature_checked_at = "2026-10-16"), not a timeless truth. New field campaigns, satellite missions, drilling expeditions, or theoretical breakthroughs may shift a problem's status.

Paraphrased Formulations Are Normalized: Problem statements (statement, plain_statement, precise_statement) are structured scientific paraphrases rather than verbatim publisher quotations, and no raw paper texts are stored in the repository. Consult the cited peer-reviewed sources via reference_dois and references when exact historical wording matters.

Earth & Geohazard Problems Are Not Operational Forecasts or Safety Advice: Records in Category 2 (earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, landslides), Category 6/7 (extreme weather/climate), Category 11 (floods/droughts), and Category 14 (contaminants) describe fundamental research questions and must never be used as operational hazard warnings, site-safety clearances, or clinical/drinking-water guidance.

Sample Flagship Problems

`UEARTH-000001` — Nonstationarity of the Hydrological Cycle Under Climate and Environmental Change (UPH 1)

Category: hydrology_groundwater_water_cycle (Hydrology, Groundwater, and the Water Cycle) | Sub-Discipline: catchment_runoff_transit_time_uph
Status: open (multiple_viable_hypotheses) | Difficulty: hard (Level 4)
Canonical Question (statement): Is the terrestrial hydrological cycle regionally accelerating or decelerating under coupled climate and environmental change, and are there abrupt tipping thresholds in catchment water balance partitioning?
Plain Question (plain_statement): Is the water cycle speeding up or slowing down across different regions as climate and land use change, and does it have tipping points?
Precise Formulation (precise_statement): Across major hydroclimatic regimes and multi-decadal instrumental records, how do radiative forcing, atmospheric evaporative demand, and land-cover change alter catchment-scale precipitation-runoff-evapotranspiration partitioning ($P - E - Q = \Delta S$), and under what boundary conditions does nonlinear storage-discharge feedback induce hysteresis or regime shifts?
Governing Relations (governing_relations): Kirchner dynamical catchment storage-discharge sensitivity $g(Q) = dQ/dS = (-dQ/dt) / (Q - P + E)$ and power-law recession $-dQ/dt = a Q^b$; master transit-time StorAge Selection (SAS) transport $\partial_t S_T(T, t) + \partial_T S_T(T, t) = J(t) - Q(t) \Omega_Q(S_T, t) - E(t) \Omega_E(S_T, t)$
Observables: high-frequency stream and precipitation stable water isotopes (delta-18O, delta-2H), electrical conductivity, and discharge, nested hillslope tensiometer/piezometer networks and StorAge Selection (SAS) transit-time distributions
Inferred Properties: emergent catchment-scale storage-discharge constitutive relations from heterogeneous hillslope preferential flow
Linked Problems (related_problems): UEARTH-013460, UEARTH-000015, UEARTH-019411
Peer-Reviewed References (references):
- Twenty-three unsolved problems in hydrology (UPH) - a community perspective (2019), Time Variability and Change (UPH 1), DOI:10.1080/02626667.2019.1620507
- Jha et al. (2026), H2Open Journal, DOI:10.1016/j.htopen.2026.100092
- Tanner et al. (2015), Hydrological Sciences Journal, DOI:10.1080/02626667.2015.1052453
- B. Arheimer, C. Cudennec, A. Castellarin et al. (2024), The IAHS Science for Solutions decade (HELPING), Hydrological Sciences Journal 69(11), 1417-1435.

`UEARTH-001201` — Geochemical Characteristics and Significance of Molecular Markers in the Paleogene-Neogene Crude Oils of the Northwest Qaidam Basin

Category: deep_earth_tectonics_geodynamics_geomagnetism (Deep Earth, Tectonics, Geodynamics, and Geomagnetism) | Sub-Discipline: craton_orogen_continental_crust
Status: open (multiple_viable_hypotheses) | Difficulty: hard (Level 4)
Canonical Question (statement): How can the regional distribution characteristics of molecular markers of crude oil and the petroleum system elements relevant to the distribution of oil and gas in the northwest Qaidam Basin be quantitatively constrained across Himalaya–Tibetan Plateau and Central Asian Orogenic System, and what is the relative importance of crustal deformation versus metamorphic transformation?
Plain Question (plain_statement): How do crustal deformation and crystalline rock properties work together to govern geochemical characteristics and significance of molecular markers in the Paleogene-Neogene crude oils of the northwest Qaidam Basin across Himalaya–Tibetan Plateau and Central Asian Orogenic System?
Precise Formulation (precise_statement): Within crystalline rock of the continental crust (0–200 km), how do continental collision, lithospheric thickening, and convective removal of eclogitized lower crust and Moho temperature, crustal radiogenic heat production, and cratonic keel composition interact via crustal deformation (governed by viscous thin-sheet Argand number $\mathrm{Ar} = g \rho_c (1 - \rho_c/\rho_m) H_c^2 / (\eta_{\mathrm{eff}} U_0)$) to control geochemical characteristics and significance of molecular markers in the Paleogene-Neogene crude oils of the northwest Qaidam Basin, and can crustal receiver-function Moho depth maps, Bouguer gravity anomalies, and xenolith thermobarometry uniquely resolve secular continental crust growth versus recycling rates and lower-crustal foundry mechanics?
Governing Relations (governing_relations): viscous thin-sheet Argand number $\mathrm{Ar} = g \rho_c (1 - \rho_c/\rho_m) H_c^2 / (\eta_{\mathrm{eff}} U_0)$; isopycnic cratonic root stability $\Delta \rho(T, X_{\mathrm{Mg#}}) = \rho_0 [ -\alpha (T - T_0) + \beta_{\mathrm{chem}} \Delta X_{\mathrm{Mg#}} ] \approx 0$
Observables: crustal receiver-function Moho depth maps, Bouguer gravity anomalies, and xenolith thermobarometry, zircon U-Pb/Hf-O isotopic arrays and whole-rock major/trace-element crustal compilations
Inferred Properties: secular continental crust growth versus recycling rates and lower-crustal foundry mechanics
Linked Problems (related_problems): UEARTH-000631, UEARTH-000370, UEARTH-001584
Peer-Reviewed References (references):
- Meng et al. (2024), ACS omega, DOI:10.1021/acsomega.4c05687
- Behera et al. (2024), Environmental research, DOI:10.1016/j.envres.2024.118909
- Zhang et al. (2024), Scientific reports, DOI:10.1038/s41598-024-79190-9
- NASEM (2020), A Vision for NSF Earth Sciences 2020-2030: Earth in Time (Solid Earth & Geodynamics Synthesis), National Academies Press.

`UEARTH-005015` — A standardised classification scheme for the Mid-Holocene Toalean artefacts of South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Category: geologic_time_paleoclimate_stratigraphy_earth_history (Geologic Time, Paleoclimate, Stratigraphy, and Earth History) | Sub-Discipline: quaternary_orbital_ice_core_paleoclimate
Status: open (framework_dependent) | Difficulty: hard (Level 4)
Canonical Question (statement): How do coupled processes of radiative transfer and energy balance and carbon cycle and biogeochemical cycling in ice or snow control A standardised classification scheme for the mid-Holocene toalean artefacts of South Sulawesi, indonesia across Humid Tropical River Basins and Maritime Continent, and how can ice-core trapped-gas CO2/CH4 records, speleothem U-Th/delta-18O series, and loess-paleosol sequences resolve interhemispheric phasing of millennial abrupt climate oscillations and deep-ocean carbon storage?
Plain Question (plain_statement): How do radiative transfer and energy balance and ice or snow properties work together to govern A standardised classification scheme for the mid-Holocene toalean artefacts of South Sulawesi, indonesia across Humid Tropical River Basins and Maritime Continent?
Precise Formulation (precise_statement): Within ice or snow of the sedimentary stratigraphic archive (Surface to 4 km ice/sediment depth), how do Milankovitch orbital insolation variations, ice-sheet albedo feedbacks, and AMOC reorganizations and continental ice-sheet geometry, Southern Ocean sea-ice extent, and dust radiative forcing interact via radiative transfer and energy balance (governed by bipolar seesaw heat balance $C_S dT_S/dt = -\Delta Q_{\mathrm{AMOC}}(t) - \lambda_S T_S$) to control A standardised classification scheme for the mid-Holocene toalean artefacts of South Sulawesi, indonesia, and can ice-core trapped-gas CO2/CH4 records, speleothem U-Th/delta-18O series, and loess-paleosol sequences uniquely resolve interhemispheric phasing of millennial abrupt climate oscillations and deep-ocean carbon storage?
Governing Relations (governing_relations): Milankovitch insolation-forced ice volume $dV_{\mathrm{ice}}/dt = I(65^\circ\mathrm{N}, e, \varepsilon, \varpi) - V_{\mathrm{ice}}/\tau_{\mathrm{ablation}}(p\mathrm{CO}2)$; bipolar seesaw heat balance $C_S dT_S/dt = -\Delta Q{\mathrm{AMOC}}(t) - \lambda_S T_S$
Observables: ice-core trapped-gas CO2/CH4 records, speleothem U-Th/delta-18O series, and loess-paleosol sequences, marine benthic foraminiferal delta-18O/delta-13C stacks and alkenone/TEX86 sea-surface temperatures
Inferred Properties: interhemispheric phasing of millennial abrupt climate oscillations and deep-ocean carbon storage
Linked Problems (related_problems): UEARTH-004925, UEARTH-004931, UEARTH-007951
Peer-Reviewed References (references):
- Perston et al. (2021), PloS one, DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0251138
- Wang et al. (2025), PloS one, DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0327224
- Gruwier et al. (2023), American Journal of Biological Anthropology, DOI:10.1002/ajpa.24840
- J. E. Tierney, C. J. Poulsen, I. P. Montañez et al. (2020), Past climates inform our future, Science 370(6517), eaay3701.

`UEARTH-012641` — Effects of hull cleaning wastewater on coastal plankton community: A mesocosm experiment

Category: marine_biogeochemistry_seafloor_ocean_ecosystem (Marine Biogeochemistry, Seafloor, and Ocean-Ecosystem Coupling) | Sub-Discipline: biological_carbon_pump_export_phytoplankton
Status: partially_solved (mechanism_known_magnitude_uncertain) | Difficulty: medium (Level 3)
Canonical Question (statement): What physical, chemical, and dynamical mechanisms govern the contaminants can directly alter water of effects of hull cleaning wastewater on coastal plankton community regarding A mesocosm experimentchemistry and disrupt planktonic community dynamics, yet their ecological effects in coastal environments, and how do euphotic-zone nutrient supply, mixed-layer light availability, and ocean warming stratification interact with phytoplankton community size structure, mineral ballast (opal/CaCO3) ratios, and mesopelagic temperature?
Plain Question (plain_statement): What natural processes control effects of hull cleaning wastewater on coastal plankton community regarding A mesocosm experiment in Earth's open ocean, and how does it respond to euphotic-zone nutrient supply, mixed-layer light availability, and ocean warming stratification?
Precise Formulation (precise_statement): Within seawater of the open ocean (0–1,000 m (epipelagic to mesopelagic)), how do euphotic-zone nutrient supply, mixed-layer light availability, and ocean warming stratification and phytoplankton community size structure, mineral ballast (opal/CaCO3) ratios, and mesopelagic temperature interact via carbon cycle and biogeochemical cycling (governed by Sverdrup-Behrenfeld phytoplankton net growth $dP/dt = [\mu(I, T, \mathrm{N, Fe}) - m_{\mathrm{graz}}(Z) - w_s/h_m] P$) to control effects of hull cleaning wastewater on coastal plankton community regarding A mesocosm experiment, and can BGC-Argo bio-optical/nitrate/oxygen floats, neutrally buoyant sediment traps, and Underwater Vision Profilers (UVP) uniquely resolve microbial remineralization vs. mineral-ballast protection controlling twilight-zone transfer efficiency?
Governing Relations (governing_relations): Martin power-law POC flux attenuation $F_{\mathrm{POC}}(z) = F_{\mathrm{POC}}(z_0) (z / z_0)^{-b(T, [\mathrm{O}2])}$ where $b = k{\mathrm{remin}}(T) / w_{\mathrm{sink}}$; Sverdrup-Behrenfeld phytoplankton net growth $dP/dt = [\mu(I, T, \mathrm{N, Fe}) - m_{\mathrm{graz}}(Z) - w_s/h_m] P$
Observables: BGC-Argo bio-optical/nitrate/oxygen floats, neutrally buoyant sediment traps, and Underwater Vision Profilers (UVP), 234Th/238U disequilibrium export fluxes and satellite hyperspectral ocean-color phytoplankton functional types
Inferred Properties: microbial remineralization vs. mineral-ballast protection controlling twilight-zone transfer efficiency
Linked Problems (related_problems): UEARTH-012137, UEARTH-012161, UEARTH-010867
Peer-Reviewed References (references):
- Lee et al. (2025), Journal of hazardous materials, DOI:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.139458
- Antoni et al. (2025), Frontiers in microbiomes, DOI:10.3389/frmbi.2025.1659695
- Zhu et al. (2026), Water research, DOI:10.1016/j.watres.2025.125134
- D. Breitburg, L. A. Levin, A. Oschlies et al. (2018), Declining oxygen in the global ocean and coastal waters, Science 359(6371), eaam7240.

`UEARTH-018901` — Educating for environmental transition: the summer school on microplastics

Category: pollution_contaminant_fate_environmental_quality (Pollution, Contaminant Fate, and Environmental Quality) | Sub-Discipline: microplastics_nanoplastics_weathering_vectors
Status: open (framework_dependent) | Difficulty: medium (Level 3)
Canonical Question (statement): In the context of educating for environmental transition regarding the summer school on microplastics, what mechanisms govern challenges in scientific monitoring, policymaking, and public engagement, and how is it modulated by polymer crystallinity/density, suspended mineral floc concentration, and estuarine salinity fronts?
Plain Question (plain_statement): What natural processes control challenges in scientific monitoring, policymaking, and public engagement in relation to educating for environmental transition regarding the summer school on microplastics?
Precise Formulation (precise_statement): Within freshwater surface of the river (Surface waters to deep-sea benthic sediments), how do solar UV irradiance, hydrodynamic shear fragmentation, and microbial biofouling succession and polymer crystallinity/density, suspended mineral floc concentration, and estuarine salinity fronts interact via contaminant transport and fate (governed by shape-dependent Dietrich settling velocity $w_s^* = f(D^*, \mathrm{CSF}, P_{\mathrm{roundness}}, \rho_p(\text{biofilm}) - \rho_w)$) to control educating for environmental transition regarding the summer school on microplastics, and can micro-FTIR, micro-Raman, and pyrolysis-GC-MS polymer quantification down to sub-micron nanoplastic scales uniquely resolve biofilm heteroaggregation ('plastisphere') altering buoyancy, vertical settling velocities, and co-contaminant/AMR vectoring?
Governing Relations (governing_relations): DLVO colloidal attachment-detachment transport $\partial_t C + v \partial_x C - D \partial_{xx} C = -k_{\mathrm{att}}(\Phi_{\mathrm{DLVO}}, I) \psi_{\mathrm{block}} C + k_{\mathrm{det}} \rho_b S / \theta$; shape-dependent Dietrich settling velocity $w_s^* = f(D^*, \mathrm{CSF}, P_{\mathrm{roundness}}, \rho_p(\text{biofilm}) - \rho_w)$
Observables: micro-FTIR, micro-Raman, and pyrolysis-GC-MS polymer quantification down to sub-micron nanoplastic scales, settling-column biofouling experiments and dated sediment-core microplastic accumulation profiles
Inferred Properties: biofilm heteroaggregation ('plastisphere') altering buoyancy, vertical settling velocities, and co-contaminant/AMR vectoring
Linked Problems (related_problems): UEARTH-017560, UEARTH-017659, UEARTH-013429
Peer-Reviewed References (references):
- Slaveykova et al. (2026), Environmental science and pollution research international, DOI:10.1007/s11356-025-37253-y
- Wu et al. (2026), Environmental science & technology, DOI:10.1021/acs.est.6c00432
- Jeffries et al. (2025), ACS Food Science & Technology, DOI:10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c01093
- M. G. Evich, M. J. B. Davis, J. P. McCord et al. (2022), Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in the environment, Science 375(6580), eabg9065.

Compact Repository Structure

unsolvedearth/
├── README.md                  # Main overview & Hugging Face Dataset Card
├── DATASET_CARD.md            # Detailed dataset card & methodology
├── CHANGELOG.md               # Release history (v1.0.0 -> v1.1.0)
├── LICENSE                    # CC-BY-4.0 license
├── CITATION.cff               # Citation metadata
├── problems.json              # All 20,100 records (20,000 published + 100 archived)
├── categories.json            # 15 primary Earth & environmental categories
├── difficulty_levels.json     # Difficulty scale (Levels 1-5) & dimensions
├── sets.json                  # 10 curated problem sets / source families
├── statistics.json            # Summary counts, category breakdown & literature stats
├── schemas/                   # JSON Schemas (Draft 2020-12)
├── taxonomy/                  # 10 controlled vocabulary YAML files
├── scripts/                   # Harvesting, assembly & validation scripts
└── docs/                      # Scope, status, rights & governance guides

Quickstart Usage in Python

import json
from datasets import load_dataset

# Load directly via Hugging Face datasets
ds = load_dataset("ulamai/UnsolvedEarth", split="train")
published = [p for p in ds if p["published"]]
print(f"Published open/partial problems: {len(published):,}")

# Filter by primary category and status
hydro_open = [
    p for p in published
    if p["category"] == "hydrology_groundwater_water_cycle"
    and p["status"] == "open"
]
print(f"Open Hydrology problems: {len(hydro_open):,}")
print("Sample:", hydro_open[0]["id"], "->", hydro_open[0]["statement"])
print("References:", hydro_open[0]["references"])

UnsolvedEarth (ulamai/UnsolvedEarth) — v1.3.0

Key Release Metrics (v1.3.0)

15 Primary Earth & Environmental Categories

Problem Sets & Flagship Sources (sets.json)

Compact Problem Record Schema (problems.json)