id int32 0 100k | text stringlengths 21 3.54k | source stringlengths 1 124 | similarity float32 0.78 0.88 |
|---|---|---|---|
2,100 | Based on X-PLOR, to determine the structure of molecules based on data from NMR experiments. It solves distance geometry problems with heuristic methods (such as simulated annealing) and local search methods (such as conjugate gradient minimization). TINKER. | Distance geometry problem | 0.835686 |
2,101 | Some software packages for applications are: DGSOL. Solves large distance geometry problems in macromolecular modeling. Xplor-NIH. | Distance geometry problem | 0.835686 |
2,102 | There are many applications of distance geometry.In telecommunication networks such as GPS, the positions of some sensors are known (which are called anchors) and some of the distances between sensors are also known: the problem is to identify the positions for all sensors. Hyperbolic navigation is one pre-GPS technolo... | Distance geometry problem | 0.835686 |
2,103 | The concepts of distance geometry will first be explained by describing two particular problems. | Distance geometry problem | 0.835686 |
2,104 | In structural biology, a protein subunit is a polypeptide chain or single protein molecule that assembles (or "coassembles") with others to form a protein complex. Large assemblies of proteins such as viruses often use a small number of types of protein subunits as building blocks.A subunit is often named with a Greek ... | Protein subunits | 0.835677 |
2,105 | The College Board's recommended preparation was a one-year college preparatory course in physics, a one-year course in algebra and trigonometry, and experience in the laboratory. | SAT Subject Test in Physics | 0.835674 |
2,106 | On January 19 2021, the College Board discontinued all SAT Subject tests, including the SAT Subject Test in Physics. This was effective immediately in the United States, and the tests were to be phased out by the following summer for international students. This was done as a response to changes in college admissions d... | SAT Subject Test in Physics | 0.835673 |
2,107 | It required critical thinking and test-taking strategies, at which high school freshmen or sophomores may have been inexperienced. The Physics SAT tested more than what normal state requirements were; therefore, many students prepared for the Physics SAT using a preparatory book or by taking an AP course in physics. | SAT Subject Test in Physics | 0.835673 |
2,108 | The SAT Subject Test in Physics, Physics SAT II, or simply the Physics SAT, was a one-hour multiple choice test on physics administered by the College Board in the United States. A high school student generally chose to take the test to fulfill college entrance requirements for the schools at which the student was plan... | SAT Subject Test in Physics | 0.835673 |
2,109 | The SAT Subject Test in Physics had 75 questions and consisted of two parts: Part A and Part B. Part A: First 12 or 13 questions 4 groups of two to four questions each The questions within any one group all relate to a single situation. Five possible answer choices are given before the question. An answer choice can be... | SAT Subject Test in Physics | 0.835673 |
2,110 | Students taking the SAT Subject Test in Physics were prohibited from using any resources during the test, including textbooks, notes, or formula sheets. Although there were mathematics questions including trigonometry, the use of a calculator was not allowed. All scratch work was required to have been done directly in ... | SAT Subject Test in Physics | 0.835673 |
2,111 | The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2021 was attributed to David Julius (professor at the University of California, San Francisco, USA) and Ardem Patapoutian (neuroscience professor at Scripps Research in La Jolla, California, USA) "for their discovery of receptors for temperature and touch". | Sensible temperature | 0.835672 |
2,112 | Multilocus sequence typing (MLST) is a technique in molecular biology for the typing of multiple loci, using DNA sequences of internal fragments of multiple housekeeping genes to characterize isolates of microbial species. The first MLST scheme to be developed was for Neisseria meningitidis, the causative agent of meni... | Multilocus sequence typing | 0.835671 |
2,113 | MLST is automated, combines advances in high throughput sequencing and bioinformatics with established population genetics techniques. MLST data can be used to investigate evolutionary relationships among bacteria. MLST provides good discriminatory power to differentiate isolates. The application of MLST is huge, and p... | Multilocus sequence typing | 0.835671 |
2,114 | Thus, for example in Escherichia coli, identifying strains carrying toxin genes is more important than having a population genetics-based evaluation of prevalent strains. The advent of second-generation sequencing technologies has made it possible to obtain sequence information across the entire bacterial genome at rel... | Multilocus sequence typing | 0.835671 |
2,115 | Population genetics is not the only relevant factor in an epidemic. Virulence factors are also important in causing disease, and population genetic studies struggle to monitor these. This is because the genes involved are often highly recombining and mobile between strains in comparison with the population genetic fram... | Multilocus sequence typing | 0.835671 |
2,116 | The series is currently edited by Anna Pyle, Yale and David Christianson, Chair of the Department of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania. Each volume is guest-edited and contributed to by expert researchers in the field (e. g. Biochemists, biophysicists, molecular biologists, analytical chemists or physiologists) == ... | Methods in Enzymology | 0.835662 |
2,117 | Historically, each volume has centered on a specific topic of biochemistry, such as DNA repair, yeast genetics, or the biology of nitric oxide. In recent years, however, the range of topics covered has broadened to also include biotechnology-oriented areas of research. Each Volume and Chapter includes not only backgrou... | Methods in Enzymology | 0.835662 |
2,118 | Methods in Enzymology is a book-series of scientific publications focused primarily on research methods in biochemistry by Academic Press, created by Sidney P. Colowick and Nathan O. Kaplan. | Methods in Enzymology | 0.835662 |
2,119 | Indeed, this is the statement of the ChurchβTuring thesis. Furthermore, it is known that everything that can be computed on other models of computation known to us today, such as a RAM machine, Conway's Game of Life, cellular automata, lambda calculus or any programming language can be computed on a Turing machine. Sin... | Tractable problem | 0.835649 |
2,120 | These include various types of integer programming problems in operations research, many problems in logistics, protein structure prediction in biology, and the ability to find formal proofs of pure mathematics theorems. The P versus NP problem is one of the Millennium Prize Problems proposed by the Clay Mathematics In... | Tractable problem | 0.835649 |
2,121 | Since deterministic Turing machines are special non-deterministic Turing machines, it is easily observed that each problem in P is also member of the class NP. The question of whether P equals NP is one of the most important open questions in theoretical computer science because of the wide implications of a solution. ... | Tractable problem | 0.835649 |
2,122 | From that normal form, the matrix Ξ¦ can be read off directly. Consequently, expressions for the adjoint and the Lie algebras can be obtained using formulas (4) and (5). This is demonstrated below in most of the non-trivial cases. | Classical groups | 0.835648 |
2,123 | The quaternionic special linear group is given by S L ( n , H ) = { g β G L ( n , H ) | d e t g = 1 } β‘ S U β ( 2 n ) , {\displaystyle \mathrm {SL} (n,\mathbb {H} )=\{g\in \mathrm {GL} (n,\mathbb {H} )|\mathrm {det} \ g=1\}\equiv \mathrm {SU} ^{*}(2n),} where the determinant is taken on the matrices in C2n. Alternative... | Classical groups | 0.835648 |
2,124 | Under the identification above, G L ( n , H ) = { g β G L ( 2 n , C ) | J g = g Β― J , d e t g β 0 } β‘ U β ( 2 n ) . {\displaystyle \mathrm {GL} (n,\mathbb {H} )=\{g\in \mathrm {GL} (2n,\mathbb {C} )|Jg={\overline {g}}J,\mathrm {det} \quad g\neq 0\}\equiv \mathrm {U} ^{*}(2n).} Its Lie algebra gl(n, H) is the set of all... | Classical groups | 0.835648 |
2,125 | Contrasting with the classical Lie groups are the exceptional Lie groups, G2, F4, E6, E7, E8, which share their abstract properties, but not their familiarity. These were only discovered around 1890 in the classification of the simple Lie algebras over the complex numbers by Wilhelm Killing and Γlie Cartan. | Classical groups | 0.835648 |
2,126 | A few examples are the following. The rotation group SO(3) is a symmetry of Euclidean space and all fundamental laws of physics, the Lorentz group O(3,1) is a symmetry group of spacetime of special relativity. The special unitary group SU(3) is the symmetry group of quantum chromodynamics and the symplectic group Sp(m)... | Classical groups | 0.835648 |
2,127 | The term "classical group" was coined by Hermann Weyl, it being the title of his 1939 monograph The Classical Groups.The classical groups form the deepest and most useful part of the subject of linear Lie groups. Most types of classical groups find application in classical and modern physics. | Classical groups | 0.835648 |
2,128 | Thus the Lie algebra can be characterized without reference to a basis, or the adjoint, as a u t ( Ο ) = { X β M n ( V ): Ο ( X x , y ) = β Ο ( x , X y ) , β x , y β V } . {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {aut}}(\varphi )=\{X\in M_{n}(V):\varphi (Xx,y)=-\varphi (x,Xy),\quad \forall x,y\in V\}.} The normal form for Ο will be g... | Classical groups | 0.835648 |
2,129 | {\displaystyle \operatorname {Aut} (\varphi )=\left\{A\in \operatorname {GL} (V):\Phi ^{-1}A^{\mathrm {T} }\Phi A=1\right\}.} The Lie algebra aut(Ο) of the automorphism groups can be written down immediately. Abstractly, X β aut(Ο) if and only if ( e t X ) Ο e t X = 1 {\displaystyle (e^{tX})^{\varphi }e^{tX}=1} for all... | Classical groups | 0.835648 |
2,130 | If q = 0 the notation is U(n). In this case, Ξ¦ takes the form Ξ¦ = ( 1 p 0 0 β 1 q ) = I p , q , {\displaystyle \Phi =\left({\begin{matrix}1_{p}&0\\0&-1_{q}\end{matrix}}\right)=I_{p,q},} and the Lie algebra is given by u ( p , q ) = { ( X p Γ p Z p Γ q Z p Γ q Β― T Y q Γ q ) | X Β― T = β X , Y Β― T = β Y } . {\displaystyle... | Classical groups | 0.835648 |
2,131 | This volume attempts to formulate certain patterns of plausible reasoning. The relation of these patterns with the calculus of probability are also investigated. Their relation to mathematical invention and instruction are also discussed. The following are some of the patterns of plausible inference discussed by Polya. | Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning | 0.835643 |
2,132 | . . In the next chapter the techniques of generalization, specialization and analogy are presented as possible strategies for plausible reasoning. In the remaining chapters, these ideas are illustrated by discussing the discovery of several results in various fields of mathematics like number theory, geometry, etc. and... | Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning | 0.835643 |
2,133 | This is the origin of the term linear for describing this type of equations. More generally, the solutions of a linear equation in n variables form a hyperplane (a subspace of dimension n β 1) in the Euclidean space of dimension n. Linear equations occur frequently in all mathematics and their applications in physics a... | First degree equation | 0.835634 |
2,134 | These methods use database information regarding structures to match homologous structures to the created protein sequences. These homologous structures are assembled to give compact structures using scoring and optimization procedures, with the goal of achieving the lowest potential energy score. Webservers for fragme... | Enzyme engineering | 0.835613 |
2,135 | Generally, current computational de novo and redesign methods do not compare to evolved variants in catalytic performance. Although experimental optimization may be produced using directed evolution, further improvements in the accuracy of structure predictions and greater catalytic ability will be achieved with improv... | Enzyme engineering | 0.835613 |
2,136 | In the Standard Model of particle physics, electrons belong to the group of subatomic particles called leptons, which are believed to be fundamental or elementary particles. Electrons have the lowest mass of any charged lepton (or electrically charged particle of any type) and belong to the first-generation of fundamen... | Electron | 0.835597 |
2,137 | However, Bohr's model failed to account for the relative intensities of the spectral lines and it was unsuccessful in explaining the spectra of more complex atoms.Chemical bonds between atoms were explained by Gilbert Newton Lewis, who in 1916 proposed that a covalent bond between two atoms is maintained by a pair of e... | Electron | 0.835597 |
2,138 | When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a locationβa probability density. : 162β218 Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means ... | Electron | 0.835597 |
2,139 | As with all particles, electrons can act as waves. This is called the waveβparticle duality and can be demonstrated using the double-slit experiment. The wave-like nature of the electron allows it to pass through two parallel slits simultaneously, rather than just one slit as would be the case for a classical particle.... | Electron | 0.835597 |
2,140 | The magnetic moment of the nucleus is negligible compared with that of the electrons. The magnetic moments of the electrons that occupy the same orbital (so called, paired electrons) cancel each other out.The chemical bond between atoms occurs as a result of electromagnetic interactions, as described by the laws of qua... | Electron | 0.835597 |
2,141 | Elementary algebra Left-hand side and right-hand side of an equation β Linear equation β Quadratic equation β Solution point β Arithmetic progression β Recurrence relation β Finite difference β Difference operator β Groups β Group isomorphism β Subgroups β Fermat's little theorem β Cryptography β Faulhaber's formula β | Outline of discrete mathematics | 0.835581 |
2,142 | Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematical structures that are fundamentally discrete rather than continuous. In contrast to real numbers that have the property of varying "smoothly", the objects studied in discrete mathematics β such as integers, graphs, and statements in logic β do not vary smoothly in this wa... | Outline of discrete mathematics | 0.835581 |
2,143 | Decimal β Binary numeral system β Divisor β Division by zero β Indeterminate form β Empty product β Euclidean algorithm β Fundamental theorem of arithmetic β Modular arithmetic β Successor function | Outline of discrete mathematics | 0.835581 |
2,144 | Binary relation β Heterogeneous relation β Reflexive relation β Reflexive property of equality β Symmetric relation β Symmetric property of equality β Antisymmetric relation β Transitivity (mathematics) β Transitive closure β Transitive property of equality β Equivalence and identity Equivalence relation β Equivalence ... | Outline of discrete mathematics | 0.835581 |
2,145 | Set (mathematics) β Element (mathematics) β Venn diagram β Empty set β Subset β Union (set theory) β Disjoint union β Intersection (set theory) β Disjoint sets β Complement (set theory) β Symmetric difference β Ordered pair β Cartesian product β Power set β Simple theorems in the algebra of sets β Naive set theory β Mu... | Outline of discrete mathematics | 0.835581 |
2,146 | Logic β a study of reasoning-Modal Logic: A type of logic for the study of necessity and probability Set theory β a study of collections of elements Number theory β study of integers and integer-valued functions Combinatorics β a study of Counting Finite mathematics β a course title Graph theory β a study of graphs Dig... | Outline of discrete mathematics | 0.835581 |
2,147 | For further reading in discrete mathematics, beyond a basic level, see these pages. Many of these disciplines are closely related to computer science. Automata theory β Coding theory β Combinatorics β Computational geometry β Digital geometry β Discrete geometry β Graph theory β a study of graphs Mathematical logic β D... | Outline of discrete mathematics | 0.835581 |
2,148 | Mechanobiology is an emerging field of science at the interface of biology, engineering, chemistry and physics. It focuses on how physical forces and changes in the mechanical properties of cells and tissues contribute to development, cell differentiation, physiology, and disease. Mechanical forces are experienced and ... | Mechanobiology | 0.83558 |
2,149 | The solid phase is made up of porous ECM. The proteoglycans and interstitial fluids interact to give compressive force to the cartilage through negative electrostatic repulsive forces. The ion concentration difference between the extracellular and intracellular ions composition of chondrocytes result in hydrostatic pre... | Mechanobiology | 0.83558 |
2,150 | A major challenge in the field is understanding mechanotransductionβthe molecular mechanisms by which cells sense and respond to mechanical signals. While medicine has typically looked for the genetic and biochemical basis of disease, advances in mechanobiology suggest that changes in cell mechanics, extracellular matr... | Mechanobiology | 0.83558 |
2,151 | If F {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}} is the whole power set of X {\displaystyle X} then C ( X ) {\displaystyle {\mathcal {C}}(\mathbf {X} )} is called a full complex algebra or power algebra. Every (normal) Boolean algebra with operators can be represented as a field of sets on a relational structure in the sense that i... | Set algebra | 0.835571 |
2,152 | The representation of interior algebras by preorder fields can be generalized to a representation theorem for arbitrary (normal) Boolean algebras with operators. For this we consider structures ( X , ( R i ) I , F ) {\displaystyle (X,(R_{i})_{I},{\mathcal {F}})} where ( X , ( R i ) I ) {\displaystyle (X,(R_{i})_{I})} i... | Set algebra | 0.835571 |
2,153 | Given an interior algebra we can form the Stone representation of its underlying Boolean algebra and then extend this to a topological field of sets by taking the topology generated by the complexes corresponding to the open elements of the interior algebra (which form a base for a topology). These complexes are then p... | Set algebra | 0.835571 |
2,154 | A topological field of sets is called algebraic if and only if there is a base for its topology consisting of complexes. If a topological field of sets is both compact and algebraic then its topology is compact and its compact open sets are precisely the open complexes. Moreover, the open complexes form a base for the ... | Set algebra | 0.835571 |
2,155 | A preorder field is a triple ( X , β€ , F ) {\displaystyle (X,\leq ,{\mathcal {F}})} where ( X , β€ ) {\displaystyle (X,\leq )} is a preordered set and ( X , F ) {\displaystyle (X,{\mathcal {F}})} is a field of sets. Like the topological fields of sets, preorder fields play an important role in the representation theory ... | Set algebra | 0.835571 |
2,156 | The energy distribution of the emitted electrons is important both for scientific experiments that use the emitted electron energy distribution to probe aspects of the emitter surface physics and for the field emission sources used in electron beam instruments such as electron microscopes. In the latter case, the "widt... | Field emission | 0.835569 |
2,157 | This overall geometry has also been used with carbon nanotubes grown in the void. The other original device type was the "Latham emitter". | Field emission | 0.835569 |
2,158 | This element of incident current density sees a barrier of height h given by: The corresponding escape probability is D(h,F): this may be expanded (approximately) in the form where DF is the escape probability for a barrier of unreduced height equal to the local work-function Ο. Hence, the element dΞ΅dKp makes a contrib... | Field emission | 0.835569 |
2,159 | In most E. coli K-12 strains (viz. Escherichia coli (molecular biology) for strain pedigrees) there are 314 UAG stop codons. Consequently, a gargantuan amount of work has gone into the replacement of these. One approach pioneered by the group of Prof. George Church from Harvard, was dubbed MAGE in CAGE: this relied on ... | Genetic code expansion | 0.835562 |
2,160 | Similarly to orthogonal tRNAs and aminoacyl tRNA synthetases (aaRSs), orthogonal ribosomes have been engineered to work in parallel to the natural ribosomes. Orthogonal ribosomes ideally use different mRNA transcripts than their natural counterparts and ultimately should draw on a separate pool of tRNA as well. This sh... | Genetic code expansion | 0.835562 |
2,161 | A dimensional data element is similar to a categorical variable in statistics. Typically dimensions in a data warehouse are organized internally into one or more hierarchies. "Date" is a common dimension, with several possible hierarchies: "Days (are grouped into) Months (which are grouped into) Years", "Days (are grou... | Data dimension | 0.835553 |
2,162 | The developers themselves highlight the fact that those doing research should exercise caution when using such microbenchmarks: the JavaScript benchmarks are fleetingly small, and behave in ways that are significantly different than the real applications. We have documented numerous differences in behavior, and we con... | The Computer Language Benchmarks Game | 0.835518 |
2,163 | The benchmark results have uncovered various compiler issues. Sometimes a given compiler failed to process unusual, but otherwise grammatically valid constructs. At other times, runtime performance was shown to be below expectations, which prompted compiler developers to revise their optimization capabilities. Various ... | The Computer Language Benchmarks Game | 0.835518 |
2,164 | In physics and other sciences many thought experiments date from the 19th and especially the 20th Century, but examples can be found at least as early as Galileo. In thought experiments, we gain new information by rearranging or reorganizing already known empirical data in a new way and drawing new (a priori) inference... | Thought Experiment | 0.835512 |
2,165 | Thought experiments have been used in a variety of fields, including philosophy, law, physics, and mathematics. In philosophy they have been used at least since classical antiquity, some pre-dating Socrates. In law, they were well known to Roman lawyers quoted in the Digest. In physics and other sciences, notable thoug... | Thought Experiment | 0.835512 |
2,166 | After some decades, it was asserted that feasible experiments could prove the error of the EPR paper. These experiments tested the Bell inequalities published in 1964 in a purely theoretical paper. The above-mentioned EPR philosophical starting assumptions were considered to be falsified by the empirical fact (e.g. by ... | Thought Experiment | 0.835512 |
2,167 | The relation to real experiments can be quite complex, as can be seen again from an example going back to Albert Einstein. In 1935, with two coworkers, he published a paper on a newly created subject called later the EPR effect (EPR paradox). In this paper, starting from certain philosophical assumptions, on the basis ... | Thought Experiment | 0.835512 |
2,168 | With this high influx of new information, there has arisen a higher demand for bioinformatics so scientists can properly analyze the new data. In response, software and other tools have been developed for this purpose. Also, as of 2008, the amount of stored sequences was doubling every 18 months, making urgent the need... | Pathogenomics | 0.835507 |
2,169 | Multiple genetic elements of human-affecting pathogens contribute to the transfer of virulence factors: plasmids, pathogenicity island, prophages, bacteriophages, transposons, and integrative and conjugative elements. Pathogenicity islands and their detection are the focus of several bioinformatics efforts involved in ... | Pathogenomics | 0.835507 |
2,170 | During the earlier times when genomics was being studied, scientists found it challenging to sequence genetic information. The field began to explode in 1977 when Fred Sanger, PhD, along with his colleagues, sequenced the DNA-based genome of a bacteriophage, using a method now known as the Sanger Method. The Sanger Met... | Pathogenomics | 0.835507 |
2,171 | The "eco-evo" perspective on pathogen-host interactions emphasizes the influences ecology and the environment on pathogen evolution. The dynamic genomic factors such as gene loss, gene gain and genome rearrangement, are all strongly influenced by changes in the ecological niche where a particular microbial strain resid... | Pathogenomics | 0.835507 |
2,172 | Pathogenomics is a field which uses high-throughput screening technology and bioinformatics to study encoded microbe resistance, as well as virulence factors (VFs), which enable a microorganism to infect a host and possibly cause disease. This includes studying genomes of pathogens which cannot be cultured outside of a... | Pathogenomics | 0.835507 |
2,173 | One of the key forces driving gene gain is thought to be horizontal (lateral) gene transfer (LGT). It is of particular interest in microbial studies because these mobile genetic elements may introduce virulence factors into a new genome. A comparative study conducted by Gill et al. in 2005 postulated that LGT may have ... | Pathogenomics | 0.835507 |
2,174 | "Method 2" is the only solution that fulfills the transformation invariants that are present in certain physical systemsβsuch as in statistical mechanics and gas physicsβin the specific case of Jaynes's proposed experiment of throwing straws from a distance onto a small circle. Nevertheless, one can design other practi... | Bertrand paradox (probability) | 0.835496 |
2,175 | The activity selection problem is a combinatorial optimization problem concerning the selection of non-conflicting activities to perform within a given time frame, given a set of activities each marked by a start time (si) and finish time (fi). The problem is to select the maximum number of activities that can be perfo... | Activity selection problem | 0.835495 |
2,176 | In fact, the information lower bound can be generalised to the case where there is a non-zero probability that the algorithm makes an error. In this form, the theorem gives us an upper bound on the probability of success based on the number of tests. For any group-testing algorithm that performs t {\displaystyle t} tes... | Group testing | 0.835436 |
2,177 | The generality of the theory of group testing lends it to many diverse applications, including clone screening, locating electrical shorts; high speed computer networks; medical examination, quantity searching, statistics; machine learning, DNA sequencing; cryptography; and data forensics. This section provides a brief... | Group testing | 0.835436 |
2,178 | The concept of group testing was first introduced by Robert Dorfman in 1943 in a short report published in the Notes section of Annals of Mathematical Statistics. Dorfman's report β as with all the early work on group testing β focused on the probabilistic problem, and aimed to use the novel idea of group testing to re... | Group testing | 0.835436 |
2,179 | The structure of the scheme of the tests involved in a non-adaptive procedure is known as a pooling design. Group testing has many applications, including statistics, biology, computer science, medicine, engineering and cyber security. Modern interest in these testing schemes has been rekindled by the Human Genome Proj... | Group testing | 0.835436 |
2,180 | In statistics and combinatorial mathematics, group testing is any procedure that breaks up the task of identifying certain objects into tests on groups of items, rather than on individual ones. First studied by Robert Dorfman in 1943, group testing is a relatively new field of applied mathematics that can be applied to... | Group testing | 0.835436 |
2,181 | It is hierarchically structured in four levels. For example, one branch of the hierarchy contains: Computing methodologies Artificial intelligence Knowledge representation and reasoning Ontology engineering | ACM Computing Classification System | 0.835397 |
2,182 | A deterministic model of computation is a model of computation such that the successive states of the machine and the operations to be performed are completely determined by the preceding state. Historically, the first deterministic models were recursive functions, lambda calculus, and Turing machines. The model of ran... | Context of computational complexity | 0.835377 |
2,183 | Conditional Inference Trees. Statistics-based approach that uses non-parametric tests as splitting criteria, corrected for multiple testing to avoid overfitting. This approach results in unbiased predictor selection and does not require pruning.ID3 and CART were invented independently at around the same time (between 1... | Classification and regression tree | 0.835363 |
2,184 | Decision tree learning is a supervised learning approach used in statistics, data mining and machine learning. In this formalism, a classification or regression decision tree is used as a predictive model to draw conclusions about a set of observations. Tree models where the target variable can take a discrete set of v... | Classification and regression tree | 0.835363 |
2,185 | Many data mining software packages provide implementations of one or more decision tree algorithms. Examples include Salford Systems CART (which licensed the proprietary code of the original CART authors), IBM SPSS Modeler, RapidMiner, SAS Enterprise Miner, Matlab, R (an open-source software environment for statistical... | Classification and regression tree | 0.835363 |
2,186 | Caspar Henderson, in his book review in The Telegraph, writes that Lane's book "succeeds brilliantly" as good science writing can, expanding the reader's horizons "in ways not previously imagined." Lane explains why the counterintuitive idea "that cross-membrane proton gradients power all living cells" is no mere techn... | The Vital Question | 0.835355 |
2,187 | Tim Requarth, reviewing The Vital Question for The New York Times, finds the book "seductive and often convincing, though speculation far outpaces evidence in many of the bookβs passages. But perhaps for a biological theory of everything, that's to be expected, even welcomed. "Peter Forbes, reviewing The Vital Question... | The Vital Question | 0.835355 |
2,188 | In the book, Lane discusses what he considers to be a major gap in biology: why life operates the way that it does, and how it began. In his view as a biochemist, the core question is about energy, as all cells handle energy in the same way, relying on a steep electrochemical gradient across the very small thickness of... | The Vital Question | 0.835355 |
2,189 | Darwin suggested that life could have originated in some "warm little pond" containing a suitable mixture of chemical compounds. The question has continued to be debated into the 21st century.Nick Lane is a biochemist at University College London; he researches "evolutionary biochemistry and bioenergetics, focusing on ... | The Vital Question | 0.835355 |
2,190 | Although quasi-polynomially solvable, it has been conjectured that the planted clique problem has no polynomial time solution; this planted clique conjecture has been used as a computational hardness assumption to prove the difficulty of several other problems in computational game theory, property testing, and machine... | Super-polynomial time | 0.83534 |
2,191 | In mathematics, variation of parameters, also known as variation of constants, is a general method to solve inhomogeneous linear ordinary differential equations. For first-order inhomogeneous linear differential equations it is usually possible to find solutions via integrating factors or undetermined coefficients with... | Variation of parameters | 0.835328 |
2,192 | Unlike node degree which depends on topology alone, however, percolation centrality takes into account the topological importance of a node as well as its distance from infected nodes in deciding its overall importance. Piraveenan et al. has shown that percolation centrality-based vaccination is particularly effective ... | Targeted immunization strategies | 0.835327 |
2,193 | These nodes are the most highly connected in the network, making them more likely to spread the contagion if infected. Immunizing this segment of the network can drastically reduce the impact of the disease on the network and requires the immunization of far fewer nodes compared to randomly selecting nodes. However, th... | Targeted immunization strategies | 0.835327 |
2,194 | No longer satisfied with establishing properties of concrete objects, mathematicians started to turn their attention to general theory. Formal definitions of certain algebraic structures began to emerge in the 19th century. For example, results about various groups of permutations came to be seen as instances of genera... | Abstract Algebra | 0.835271 |
2,195 | The end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century saw a shift in the methodology of mathematics. Abstract algebra emerged around the start of the 20th century, under the name modern algebra. Its study was part of the drive for more intellectual rigor in mathematics. Initially, the assumptions in classical algeb... | Abstract Algebra | 0.835271 |
2,196 | In 1881 Leopold Kronecker defined what he called a domain of rationality, which is a field of rational fractions in modern terms. The first clear definition of an abstract field was due to Heinrich Martin Weber in 1893. It was missing the associative law for multiplication, but covered finite fields and the fields of a... | Abstract Algebra | 0.835271 |
2,197 | Most theories that are now recognized as parts of abstract algebra started as collections of disparate facts from various branches of mathematics, acquired a common theme that served as a core around which various results were grouped, and finally became unified on a basis of a common set of concepts. This unification ... | Abstract Algebra | 0.835271 |
2,198 | Before the nineteenth century, algebra was defined as the study of polynomials. Abstract algebra came into existence during the nineteenth century as more complex problems and solution methods developed. Concrete problems and examples came from number theory, geometry, analysis, and the solutions of algebraic equations... | Abstract Algebra | 0.835271 |
2,199 | Using tools of algebraic number theory, Andrew Wiles proved Fermat's Last Theorem.In physics, groups are used to represent symmetry operations, and the usage of group theory could simplify differential equations. In gauge theory, the requirement of local symmetry can be used to deduce the equations describing a system.... | Abstract Algebra | 0.835271 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.