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3,500 | There exists a large number of tests, many of which are standardized, to determine the various mechanical properties of materials. In general, such tests set out to obtain geometry-independent properties; i.e. those intrinsic to the bulk material. In practice this is not always feasible, since even in tensile tests, ce... | Mechanical testing | 0.830598 |
3,501 | Foster, P. Field (2007), The Mechanical Testing of Metals and Alloys, Read Books, ISBN 978-1406734799. American Society for Metals (2000), ASM Handbook Volume 8: Mechanical Testing and Evaluation, American Society for Metals, ISBN 978-0871703897. Fenner, Arthur J. (1965), Mechanical Testing of Materials (International ... | Mechanical testing | 0.830598 |
3,502 | Mechanical testing covers a wide range of tests, which can be divided broadly into two types: those that aim to determine a material's mechanical properties, independent of geometry. those that determine the response of a structure to a given action, e.g. testing of composite beams, aircraft structures to destruction, ... | Mechanical testing | 0.830598 |
3,503 | This basic flaw in his modeling renders all of Dembski's subsequent calculations and reasoning in No Free Lunch irrelevant because his basic model does not reflect reality. Since the basis of No Free Lunch relies on this flawed argument, the entire thesis of the book collapses.According to Martin Nowak, a Harvard profe... | Specified complexity | 0.830596 |
3,504 | A study by Wesley Elsberry and Jeffrey Shallit states: "Dembski's work is riddled with inconsistencies, equivocation, flawed use of mathematics, poor scholarship, and misrepresentation of others' results." Another objection concerns Dembski's calculation of probabilities. According to Martin Nowak, a Harvard professor ... | Specified complexity | 0.830596 |
3,505 | Specified complexity is what Dembski terms an "explanatory filter": one can recognize design by detecting complex specified information (CSI). Dembski argues that the unguided emergence of CSI solely according to known physical laws and chance is highly improbable.The concept of specified complexity is widely regarded ... | Specified complexity | 0.830596 |
3,506 | Therefore, Dembski argues, the fact that specified complex patterns can be found in living things indicates some kind of guidance in their formation, which is indicative of intelligence. Dembski further argues that one can show by applying no-free-lunch theorems the inability of evolutionary algorithms to select or gen... | Specified complexity | 0.830596 |
3,507 | Because all of the natural variables of the internal energy U are extensive quantities, it follows from Euler's homogeneous function theorem that U = T S − p V + ∑ i μ i N i {\displaystyle U=TS-pV+\sum _{i}\mu _{i}N_{i}} Substituting into the expressions for the other main potentials we have the following expressions f... | Thermodynamic equations | 0.83059 |
3,508 | The symbol δ {\displaystyle \delta } instead of the plain d, originated in the work of German mathematician Carl Gottfried Neumann and is used to denote an inexact differential and to indicate that Q and W are path-dependent (i.e., they are not state functions). In some fields such as physical chemistry, positive work ... | Thermodynamic equations | 0.83059 |
3,509 | This is a method that combines a standard and efficient technique of mutagenesis with a chemical mutagen such as ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) with a sensitive DNA-screening technique that identifies point mutations in a target gene.In the field of virology, reverse-genetics techniques can be used to recover full-length... | Reverse genetics | 0.830579 |
3,510 | Many genetic sequences are discovered in advance of other, less easily obtained, biological information. Reverse genetics attempts to connect a given genetic sequence with specific effects on the organism. Reverse genetics systems can also allow the recovery and generation of infectious or defective viruses with desire... | Reverse genetics | 0.830579 |
3,511 | In order to learn the influence a sequence has on phenotype, or to discover its biological function, researchers can engineer a change or disrupt the DNA. After this change has been made a researcher can look for the effect of such alterations in the whole organism. There are several different methods of reverse geneti... | Reverse genetics | 0.830579 |
3,512 | Vaccines created through reverse genetics methods are known as attenuated vaccines, named because they contain weakened (attenuated) live viruses. Attenuated vaccines are created by combining genes from a novel or current virus strain with previously attenuated viruses of the same species. Attenuated viruses are create... | Reverse genetics | 0.830579 |
3,513 | Reverse genetics plays a large role in vaccine synthesis. Vaccines can be created by engineering novel genotypes of infectious viral strains which diminish their pathogenic potency enough to facilitate immunity in a host. The reverse genetics approach to vaccine synthesis utilizes known viral genetic sequences to creat... | Reverse genetics | 0.830579 |
3,514 | Reverse genetics is a method in molecular genetics that is used to help understand the function(s) of a gene by analysing the phenotypic effects caused by genetically engineering specific nucleic acid sequences within the gene. The process proceeds in the opposite direction to forward genetic screens of classical genet... | Reverse genetics | 0.830579 |
3,515 | Vaccines engineered from reverse genetics carry several advantages over traditional vaccine designs. Most notable is speed of production. Due to the high antigenic variation in the HA and NA glycoproteins, a reverse-genetic approach allows for the necessary genotype (i.e. one containing HA and NA proteins taken from cu... | Reverse genetics | 0.830579 |
3,516 | According to «TechUp» rating, Proton-Electrotex is one of the winners in the category of companies with the greatest export potential in Russia. More than 70% of Proton-Electrotex power electronics are shipped to the EU and Asia including China, India, Germany, Italy.In 2018 quality management system and ecology manage... | Proton-Electrotex | 0.83057 |
3,517 | The company was founded in 1996 at premises of a former "Proton" plant affiliated with the Ministry of Electronic Industry of the USSR. The purchased facilities and equipment were intended for clean technologies enabling to launch production of power semiconductors, however almost all assembly lines and manufacturing p... | Proton-Electrotex | 0.83057 |
3,518 | Involutivity (for unary connectives) f(f(a)) = a. E.g. negation in classical logic.For classical and intuitionistic logic, the "=" symbol means that corresponding implications "...→..." and "...←..." for logical compounds can be both proved as theorems, and the "≤" symbol means that "...→..." for logical compounds is a... | Logical operators | 0.830561 |
3,519 | Some logical connectives possess properties that may be expressed in the theorems containing the connective. Some of those properties that a logical connective may have are: Associativity Within an expression containing two or more of the same associative connectives in a row, the order of the operations does not matte... | Logical operators | 0.830561 |
3,520 | Taylor has written several college-level physics textbooks. His bestselling book is An Introduction to Error Analysis, which has been translated into nine languages. His intermediate-level undergraduate textbook, Classical Mechanics, was well-reviewed. | Classical Mechanics (Taylor) | 0.830543 |
3,521 | John Robert Taylor is British-born emeritus professor of physics at the University of Colorado, Boulder.He received his B.A. in mathematics at Cambridge University, and his Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1963 with thesis advisor Geoffrey Chew. | Classical Mechanics (Taylor) | 0.830543 |
3,522 | Taylor was designated a Presidential Teaching Scholar in 1991. He has also received an Emmy Award for his television series Physics 4 Fun (1988–1990). == References == | Classical Mechanics (Taylor) | 0.830543 |
3,523 | A mathematical instrument is a tool or device used in the study or practice of mathematics. In geometry, construction of various proofs was done using only a compass and straightedge; arguments in these proofs relied only on idealized properties of these instruments and literal construction was regarded as only an appr... | Mathematical instrument | 0.830537 |
3,524 | The Oxford Set of Mathematical Instruments is a set of instruments used by generations of school children in the United Kingdom and around the world in mathematics and geometry lessons. It includes two set squares, a 180° protractor, a 15 cm ruler, a metal compass, a 9 cm pencil, a pencil sharpener, an eraser and a 10m... | Mathematical instrument | 0.830537 |
3,525 | The tropical zodiac has no connection to the stars, and as long as no claims are made that the constellations themselves are in the associated sign, astrologers avoid the concept that precession seemingly moves the constellations. Charpak and Broch, noting this, referred to astrology based on the tropical zodiac as bei... | Terms or bounds | 0.830502 |
3,526 | Contemporary Western astrology is often associated with systems of horoscopes that purport to explain aspects of a person's personality and predict significant events in their lives based on the positions of celestial objects; the majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems. : 83 Throughout most of its hi... | Terms or bounds | 0.830502 |
3,527 | The word astrology comes from the early Latin word astrologia, which derives from the Greek ἀστρολογία—from ἄστρον astron ("star") and -λογία -logia, ("study of"—"account of the stars"). The word entered the English language via Latin and medieval French, and its use overlapped considerably with that of astronomy (deri... | Terms or bounds | 0.830502 |
3,528 | Avicenna considered that the movement of the planets influenced life on earth in a deterministic way, but argued against the possibility of determining the exact influence of the stars. Essentially, Avicenna did not deny the core dogma of astrology, but denied our ability to understand it to the extent that precise and... | Terms or bounds | 0.830502 |
3,529 | Astrological references appear in literature in the works of poets such as Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer, and of playwrights such as Christopher Marlowe and William Shakespeare. Throughout most of its history, astrology was considered a scholarly tradition. It was accepted in political and academic contexts, and... | Terms or bounds | 0.830502 |
3,530 | Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and the Indians, Chinese, and Maya developed elaborate systems for predicting terrestrial events from celestial observations. A form of astrology was practised in the Old Babylonian period of Mesopotamia, c. 1800 BCE. Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa is one of earliest know... | Terms or bounds | 0.830502 |
3,531 | The thirteenth century astronomer Guido Bonatti wrote a textbook, the Liber Astronomicus, a copy of which King Henry VII of England owned at the end of the fifteenth century.In Paradiso, the final part of the Divine Comedy, the Italian poet Dante Alighieri referred "in countless details" to the astrological planets, th... | Terms or bounds | 0.830502 |
3,532 | In the seventh century, Isidore of Seville argued in his Etymologiae that astronomy described the movements of the heavens, while astrology had two parts: one was scientific, describing the movements of the Sun, the Moon and the stars, while the other, making predictions, was theologically erroneous.The first astrologi... | Terms or bounds | 0.830502 |
3,533 | A genomic island (GI) is part of a genome that has evidence of horizontal origins. The term is usually used in microbiology, especially with regard to bacteria. A GI can code for many functions, can be involved in symbiosis or pathogenesis, and may help an organism's adaptation. Many sub-classes of GIs exist that are b... | Genomic island | 0.830491 |
3,534 | The coils of watch balance springs and the grooves of very early gramophone records form Archimedean spirals, making the grooves evenly spaced (although variable track spacing was later introduced to maximize the amount of music that could be cut onto a record).Asking for a patient to draw an Archimedean spiral is a wa... | Arithmetic spiral | 0.830488 |
3,535 | Starting May 1991, the English version was distributed by MichTron/Microdeal, Cornwall, UK. In January 1992, version 2.3 of the program was licensed to Atari Corp., who released Dutch and French translations. In 1994, version 3 of 3D-Calc (renamed 3D-Calc+) was licensed to the UK magazine ST Applications. Today, 3D-Cal... | 3D-Calc | 0.830466 |
3,536 | Different methods are used to reach that state such as vapor diffusion, microbatch, microdialysis, and free-interface diffusion. Developing protein crystals is a difficult process influenced by many factors, including pH, temperature, ionic strength in the crystallization solution, and even gravity. Once formed, these ... | Protein crystal | 0.83046 |
3,537 | Protein crystallization is governed by the same physics that governs the formation of inorganic crystals. For crystallization to occur spontaneously, the crystal state must be favored thermodynamically. This is described by Gibb's free energy (∆G), defined as ∆G = ∆H- T∆S, which captures how the energetics of a process... | Protein crystal | 0.83046 |
3,538 | Prior to Bernal and Hodgkin, protein crystallography had only been performed in dry conditions with inconsistent and unreliable results. This is the first X‐ray diffraction pattern of a protein crystal.In 1958, the structure of myoglobin (a red protein containing heme), determined by X-ray crystallography, was first re... | Protein crystal | 0.83046 |
3,539 | Resistivity measurement of bulk materials is a frequent application of electrode arrays. The figure shows a Wenner array, one of the possible ways of achieving this. Injecting the current through electrodes separate from those being used for measurement of potential has the advantage of eliminating any inaccuracies cau... | Electrode array | 0.830455 |
3,540 | In physics the term exchange force has been used to describe two distinct concepts which should not be confused. | Exchange forces | 0.830454 |
3,541 | The preferred meaning of exchange force is in particle physics, where it denotes a force produced by the exchange of force carrier particles, such as the electromagnetic force produced by the exchange of photons between electrons and the strong force produced by the exchange of gluons between quarks. The idea of an exc... | Exchange forces | 0.830454 |
3,542 | Born, Catsch, and Zimmer, who had worked for Timofeev-Resovskij in Berlin and who were sent to Laboratory B by Riehl in December 1947, were able to conduct work similar to that which they had done in Germany, and all three became section heads in Timofeev-Resovskij's department. Born examined fission products, develope... | Laboratory B in Sungulʹ | 0.830452 |
3,543 | In 1925, as the Russian part of a collaborative effort between Russia and Germany, the Russians sent Timofeev-Resovskij, and his colleague Sergei Romanovich Tsarapkin, to Germany. There, they worked with Oskar Vogt, director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Hirnforschung (KWIH, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Rese... | Laboratory B in Sungulʹ | 0.830452 |
3,544 | Laboratory V was created for Heinz Pose in Obninsk, and it was run as a sharashka. Laboratory V was later renamed the Physics and Power Engineering Institute (FEhI); today it is the State Scientific Center of the Russian Federation "FEhI". – Werner Czulius, Walter Hermann, Hans Jürgen von Oertzen, Ernst Rexer, Karl-Hei... | Laboratory B in Sungulʹ | 0.830452 |
3,545 | The German contingent left the institute in 1953. The institute had two departments: radiobiophysics (No. 1) and radiochemistry (No. 2). In 1955, the institute was merged into the newly created second nuclear weapons design institute Nauchno-Issledovatel'skij Institut-1011 (NII-1011). During the merger, the radiopathol... | Laboratory B in Sungulʹ | 0.830452 |
3,546 | (Voznesenskij had been fully rehabilitate in May 1953. )The radiochemistry division had four sections and conducted research and development in the following areas: Development of methods of cleaning radioactive waste water. Development of the most appropriate structures for the storage of radioactive waste. | Laboratory B in Sungulʹ | 0.830452 |
3,547 | On the basis of a false denunciation, Sergej Aleksandrovich Voznesenskij was arrested in June 1941; in April 1942, he was sentenced to 10 years in the Gulag. From March 1943 to 1947, he led a research group in the 4th Special Department of the NKVD in Moscow; the 4th Special Department provided military research and de... | Laboratory B in Sungulʹ | 0.830452 |
3,548 | Laboratory B had two scientific divisions, a radiobiophysics division headed by the geneticist N. V. Timofeev-Resovskij (prisoner), and a radiochemistry division headed by Sergej Aleksandrovich Voznesenskij (prisoner). | Laboratory B in Sungulʹ | 0.830452 |
3,549 | Laboratory B (Russian: Лаборатория Б), also known as Object B (Объект Б) or Object 2011 during its period of operation, was a Soviet nuclear research site constructed in 1946 at Lake Sungulʹ in Chelyabinsk Oblast. It operated under the 9th Chief Directorate of the MVD and contributed to the Soviet nuclear weapons prog... | Laboratory B in Sungulʹ | 0.830452 |
3,550 | Laboratory B in Sungul' was established by a decree of the Council of Ministers in 1946, and it was run as a Sharashka. In 1955, it was assimilated into a new, second nuclear weapons institute, Scientific Research Institute-1011 (NII-1011), today known as the Russian Federal Nuclear Center All-Russian Scientific Resear... | Laboratory B in Sungulʹ | 0.830452 |
3,551 | Since charge is conserved, current density must satisfy a continuity equation. Here is a derivation from first principles.The net flow out of some volume V (which can have an arbitrary shape but fixed for the calculation) must equal the net change in charge held inside the volume: where ρ is the charge density, and dA ... | Current density | 0.830451 |
3,552 | In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the probability current j of the wave function Ψ of a particle of mass m in one dimension is defined as where ℏ {\displaystyle \hbar } is the reduced Planck constant; Ψ ∗ {\displaystyle \Psi ^{*}} denotes the complex conjugate of the wave function; ℜ {\displaystyle \Re } denotes t... | Probability flux | 0.830445 |
3,553 | The following proposition states six more important laws of set algebra, involving unions and intersections. PROPOSITION 3: For any subsets A and B of a universe set U, the following identities hold: idempotent laws: A ∪ A = A {\displaystyle A\cup A=A} A ∩ A = A {\displaystyle A\cap A=A} domination laws: A ∪ U = U {\di... | Algebra of sets | 0.830444 |
3,554 | The following proposition states five more important laws of set algebra, involving complements. PROPOSITION 4: Let A and B be subsets of a universe U, then: De Morgan's laws: ( A ∪ B ) C = A C ∩ B C {\displaystyle (A\cup B)^{C}=A^{C}\cap B^{C}} ( A ∩ B ) C = A C ∪ B C {\displaystyle (A\cap B)^{C}=A^{C}\cup B^{C}} doub... | Algebra of sets | 0.830444 |
3,555 | Each of the identities stated above is one of a pair of identities such that each can be transformed into the other by interchanging ∪ and ∩, and also Ø and U. These are examples of an extremely important and powerful property of set algebra, namely, the principle of duality for sets, which asserts that for any true st... | Algebra of sets | 0.830444 |
3,556 | However the complement laws give the fundamental properties of the somewhat inverse-like unary operation of set complementation. The preceding five pairs of formulae—the commutative, associative, distributive, identity and complement formulae—encompass all of set algebra, in the sense that every valid proposition in th... | Algebra of sets | 0.830444 |
3,557 | The algebra of sets is the set-theoretic analogue of the algebra of numbers. Just as arithmetic addition and multiplication are associative and commutative, so are set union and intersection; just as the arithmetic relation "less than or equal" is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive, so is the set relation of "subs... | Algebra of sets | 0.830444 |
3,558 | In mathematics, the algebra of sets, not to be confused with the mathematical structure of an algebra of sets, defines the properties and laws of sets, the set-theoretic operations of union, intersection, and complementation and the relations of set equality and set inclusion. It also provides systematic procedures for... | Algebra of sets | 0.830444 |
3,559 | V. V. Batygin and I. N. Toptygin (1964,1978) Problems in Electrodynamics (ASIN B003X6BPSE) Kyriakos Tamvakis (2005) Problems and Solutions in Quantum Mechanics (ISBN 978-0521600576) A.P. Lightman, W.H. Press, R.H. Price, and S.A. Teukolsky (1979) Problem Book in Relativity and Gravitation (ISBN 978-0691081625) W-H. Ste... | Problem book | 0.830442 |
3,560 | J.A. Cronin, D.F. Greenberg, and V.L. Telegdi (1967,1979) University of Chicago Graduate Problems in Physics with Solutions (ISBN 978-0226121093) Nathan Newbury, John Ruhl, Suzanne Staggs, Stephen Thorsett, and Michael Newman. (1991) Princeton Problems in Physics with Solutions (ISBN 978-0691024493) | Problem book | 0.830442 |
3,561 | As stated above, Busch's theorem prevents a free lunch: there can be no information gain without disturbance. However, the tradeoff between information gain and disturbance has been characterized by many authors, including Fuchs and Peres; Fuchs; Fuchs and Jacobs; and Banaszek.Recently the information-gain–disturbance ... | Weak measurements | 0.830439 |
3,562 | In quantum mechanics (and computation & information), weak measurements are a type of quantum measurement that results in an observer obtaining very little information about the system on average, but also disturbs the state very little. From Busch's theorem the system is necessarily disturbed by the measurement. In th... | Weak measurements | 0.830439 |
3,563 | The Oxford Chemistry Primers are a series of short texts providing accounts of a range of essential topics in chemistry and chemical engineering written for undergraduate study. The first primer Organic Synthesis: The Roles of Boron and Silicon was published by Oxford University Press in 1991. As of 2017 there are 100 ... | Oxford Chemistry Primers | 0.830387 |
3,564 | This means that the altruistic individual, by ensuring that the alleles of its close relative are passed on through survival of its offspring, can forgo the option of having offspring itself because the same number of alleles are passed on. For example, helping a sibling (in diploid animals) has a coefficient of 1⁄2, b... | Games theory | 0.830367 |
3,565 | Biologists have used the game of chicken to analyze fighting behavior and territoriality.According to Maynard Smith, in the preface to Evolution and the Theory of Games, "paradoxically, it has turned out that game theory is more readily applied to biology than to the field of economic behaviour for which it was origina... | Games theory | 0.830367 |
3,566 | Although its initial motivation did not involve any of the mental requirements of the Nash equilibrium, every ESS is a Nash equilibrium. In biology, game theory has been used as a model to understand many different phenomena. It was first used to explain the evolution (and stability) of the approximate 1:1 sex ratios. | Games theory | 0.830367 |
3,567 | Unlike those in economics, the payoffs for games in biology are often interpreted as corresponding to fitness. In addition, the focus has been less on equilibria that correspond to a notion of rationality and more on ones that would be maintained by evolutionary forces. The best-known equilibrium in biology is known as... | Games theory | 0.830367 |
3,568 | In 1965, Reinhard Selten introduced his solution concept of subgame perfect equilibria, which further refined the Nash equilibrium. Later he would introduce trembling hand perfection as well. In 1994 Nash, Selten and Harsanyi became Economics Nobel Laureates for their contributions to economic game theory. In the 1970s... | Games theory | 0.830367 |
3,569 | Individual decision problems with stochastic outcomes are sometimes considered "one-player games". They may be modeled using similar tools within the related disciplines of decision theory, operations research, and areas of artificial intelligence, particularly AI planning (with uncertainty) and multi-agent system. Alt... | Games theory | 0.830367 |
3,570 | The computer used a simplified representation of the interacting proteins, with one interaction centre for each residue. Favorable electrostatic interactions, including hydrogen bonds, were identified by hand.In the early 1990s, more structures of complexes were determined, and available computational power had increas... | Protein docking | 0.83036 |
3,571 | "Methodology" connotes a discourse about methods — i.e., a discourse about the adequacy and appropriateness of particular combination of research principles and procedures. The terms methodology and biology share a common suffix "logy." Just as bio-logy is a discourse about life — all kinds of life; so too, methodo-log... | Mixed methods | 0.830355 |
3,572 | Statistical physics also plays a role in materials science, nuclear physics, astrophysics, chemistry, biology and medicine (e.g. study of the spread of infectious diseases). Analytical and computational techniques derived from statistical physics of disordered systems, can be extended to large-scale problems, including... | Statistical Mechanics | 0.830345 |
3,573 | In solid state physics, statistical physics aids the study of liquid crystals, phase transitions, and critical phenomena. Many experimental studies of matter are entirely based on the statistical description of a system. These include the scattering of cold neutrons, X-ray, visible light, and more. | Statistical Mechanics | 0.830345 |
3,574 | The ensemble formalism can be used to analyze general mechanical systems with uncertainty in knowledge about the state of a system. Ensembles are also used in: propagation of uncertainty over time, regression analysis of gravitational orbits, ensemble forecasting of weather, dynamics of neural networks, bounded-rationa... | Statistical Mechanics | 0.830345 |
3,575 | Quantum statistical mechanics is statistical mechanics applied to quantum mechanical systems. In quantum mechanics, a statistical ensemble (probability distribution over possible quantum states) is described by a density operator S, which is a non-negative, self-adjoint, trace-class operator of trace 1 on the Hilbert s... | Statistical Mechanics | 0.830345 |
3,576 | Overall, this mechanical aptitude test has been shown to have less of an adverse impact than previous mechanical aptitude tests. There are two scores given to each individual taking the test, a raw score and a percentile ranking. The raw score is a measure of how many questions (out of the 60 total) the individual ans... | Mechanical aptitude | 0.830335 |
3,577 | Overall, this mechanical aptitude test has been shown to have less of an adverse impact than previous mechanical aptitude tests. There are two scores given to each individual taking the test, a raw score and a percentile ranking. The raw score is a measure of how many questions (out of the 60 total) the individual answ... | Mechanical aptitude | 0.830335 |
3,578 | Bin-packing with fragmentation or fragmentable object bin-packing is a variant of the bin packing problem in which it is allowed to break items into parts and put each part separately on a different bin. Breaking items into parts may allow for improving the overall performance, for example, minimizing the number of tot... | Bin packing problem | 0.830333 |
3,579 | The bin packing problem is an optimization problem, in which items of different sizes must be packed into a finite number of bins or containers, each of a fixed given capacity, in a way that minimizes the number of bins used. The problem has many applications, such as filling up containers, loading trucks with weight c... | Bin packing problem | 0.830333 |
3,580 | Note that in the literature often an equivalent notation is used, where B = 1 {\displaystyle B=1} and s ( i ) ∈ Q ∩ ( 0 , 1 ] {\displaystyle s(i)\in \mathbb {Q} \cap (0,1]} for each i ∈ I {\displaystyle i\in I} . Furthermore, research is mostly interested in the optimization variant, which asks for the smallest possibl... | Bin packing problem | 0.830333 |
3,581 | Nucleic acid was first discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1869 at the University of Tübingen, Germany. He gave its first name as nuclein. In the early 1880s Albrecht Kossel further purified the substance and discovered its highly acidic properties. He later also identified the nucleobases. In 1889 Richard Altmann crea... | Nucleic Acid | 0.830332 |
3,582 | The combination of a rotation and translation in the plane R2 can be represented by a certain type of 3×3 matrix known as a homogeneous transform. The 3×3 homogeneous transform is constructed from a 2×2 rotation matrix A(φ) and the 2×1 translation vector d = (dx, dy), as: These homogeneous transforms perform rigid tran... | Kinematics | 0.830321 |
3,583 | Distance geometry is the branch of mathematics concerned with characterizing and studying sets of points based only on given values of the distances between pairs of points. More abstractly, it is the study of semimetric spaces and the isometric transformations between them. In this view, it can be considered as a subj... | Distance geometry | 0.830302 |
3,584 | Menger proved the following characterization theorem of semimetric spaces:A semimetric space ( R , d ) {\displaystyle (R,d)} is isometrically embeddable in the n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional Euclidean space R n {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{n}} , but not in R m {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} ^{m}} for any 0 ≤ m < n {\disp... | Distance geometry | 0.830302 |
3,585 | The modern theory of distance geometry began with Arthur Cayley and Karl Menger. Cayley published the Cayley determinant in 1841, which is a special case of the general Cayley–Menger determinant. Menger proved in 1928 a characterization theorem of all semimetric spaces that are isometrically embeddable in the n-dimensi... | Distance geometry | 0.830302 |
3,586 | The first result in distance geometry is Heron's formula, from 1st century AD, which gives the area of a triangle from the distances between its 3 vertices. Brahmagupta's formula, from 7th century AD, generalizes it to cyclic quadrilaterals. Tartaglia, from 16th century AD, generalized it to give the volume of tetrahed... | Distance geometry | 0.830302 |
3,587 | Predictive learning is a technique of machine learning in which an agent tries to build a model of its environment by trying out different actions in various circumstances. It uses knowledge of the effects its actions appear to have, turning them into planning operators. These allow the agent to act purposefully in its... | Predictive learning | 0.830289 |
3,588 | Notable developments accomplished using the Nengo software have occurred in many fields, and Nengo has been used and cited in over 100 publications. An important development to note is Spaun, a network of 6.6 million artificial spiking neurons (a small number compared to the number in the human brain), which uses group... | Neural Engineering Object | 0.830284 |
3,589 | Neural Engineering Object (Nengo) is a graphical and scripting software for simulating large-scale neural systems. As the neural network software Nengo is a tool for modelling neural networks with applications in cognitive science, psychology, artificial intelligence and neuroscience. | Neural Engineering Object | 0.830284 |
3,590 | The Journal of Chemical Education is a monthly peer-reviewed academic journal available in both print and electronic versions. It is published by the Division of Chemical Education of the American Chemical Society and was established in 1924 by Neil Gordon. The journal covers research on chemical education, and its tar... | Journal of Chemical Education | 0.830274 |
3,591 | Data obtained by SORCE can be used to model the Sun's output and to explain and predict the effect of the Sun's radiation on the Earth's atmosphere and climate. Flying in a 645 km (401 mi) orbit at a 40.0° inclination, SORCE was operated by the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) at the University of Co... | Solar Radiation and Climate Experiment | 0.830268 |
3,592 | In semiconductor physics, the flat band potential of a semiconductor defines the potential at which there is no depletion layer at the junction between a semiconductor and an electrolyte or p-n-junction. This is a consequence of the condition that the redox Fermi level of the electrolyte must be equal to the Fermi leve... | Flat band potential | 0.830257 |
3,593 | Although squaring the circle exactly with compass and straightedge is impossible, approximations to squaring the circle can be given by constructing lengths close to π {\displaystyle \pi } . It takes only elementary geometry to convert any given rational approximation of π {\displaystyle \pi } into a corresponding comp... | Squaring the circle | 0.830246 |
3,594 | In modern mathematics the terms have diverged in meaning, with quadrature generally used when methods from calculus are allowed, while squaring the curve retains the idea of using only restricted geometric methods. James Gregory attempted a proof of the impossibility of squaring the circle in Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae... | Squaring the circle | 0.830246 |
3,595 | Since the techniques of calculus were unknown, it was generally presumed that a squaring should be done via geometric constructions, that is, by compass and straightedge. For example, Newton wrote to Oldenburg in 1676 "I believe M. Leibnitz will not dislike the theorem towards the beginning of my letter pag. 4 for squa... | Squaring the circle | 0.830246 |
3,596 | In contrast, Eudemus argued that magnitudes cannot be divided up without limit, so the area of the circle would never be used up. Contemporaneously with Antiphon, Bryson of Heraclea argued that, since larger and smaller circles both exist, there must be a circle of equal area; this principle can be seen as a form of th... | Squaring the circle | 0.830246 |
3,597 | Microsoft Math 1.0: Part of Microsoft Student 2006 Microsoft Math 2.0: Part of Microsoft Student 2007 Microsoft Math 3.0: Standalone commercial product that requires product activation; includes calculus support, digital ink recognition features and a special display mode for video projectors Encarta Calculator: Lite v... | Microsoft Mathematics | 0.830238 |
3,598 | Their theory is well developed, and in many cases one may express their solutions in terms of integrals. Most ODEs that are encountered in physics are linear. Therefore, most special functions may be defined as solutions of linear differential equations (see Holonomic function). As, in general, the solutions of a diffe... | Differential Equations | 0.830231 |
3,599 | An ordinary differential equation (ODE) is an equation containing an unknown function of one real or complex variable x, its derivatives, and some given functions of x. The unknown function is generally represented by a variable (often denoted y), which, therefore, depends on x. Thus x is often called the independent v... | Differential Equations | 0.830231 |
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