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600 | Fraud detection deals with the identification of bank fraud, such as money laundering, credit card fraud and telecommunication fraud, which have vast domains of research and applications of machine learning. Because ensemble learning improves the robustness of the normal behavior modelling, it has been proposed as an e... | Ensembles of classifiers | 0.846393 |
601 | Land cover mapping is one of the major applications of Earth observation satellite sensors, using remote sensing and geospatial data, to identify the materials and objects which are located on the surface of target areas. Generally, the classes of target materials include roads, buildings, rivers, lakes, and vegetation... | Ensembles of classifiers | 0.846393 |
602 | In statistics and machine learning, ensemble methods use multiple learning algorithms to obtain better predictive performance than could be obtained from any of the constituent learning algorithms alone. Unlike a statistical ensemble in statistical mechanics, which is usually infinite, a machine learning ensemble consi... | Ensembles of classifiers | 0.846393 |
603 | In molecular biology, an amplicon is a piece of DNA or RNA that is the source and/or product of amplification or replication events. It can be formed artificially, using various methods including polymerase chain reactions (PCR) or ligase chain reactions (LCR), or naturally through gene duplication. In this context, am... | Amplicon sequencing | 0.846376 |
604 | The bound surface charge is the charge piled up at the surface of the dielectric, given by the dipole moment perpendicular to the surface: where s is the separation between the point charges constituting the dipole, d {\displaystyle \mathbf {d} } is the electric dipole moment, n ^ {\displaystyle \mathbf {\hat {n}} } is... | Charge density | 0.846187 |
605 | In quantum mechanics, charge density ρq is related to wavefunction ψ(r) by the equation where q is the charge of the particle and |ψ(r)|2 = ψ*(r)ψ(r) is the probability density function i.e. probability per unit volume of a particle located at r. When the wavefunction is normalized - the average charge in the region r ... | Charge density | 0.846187 |
606 | For example, in the factoring problem, the instances are the integers n, and solutions are prime numbers p that are the nontrivial prime factors of n. Computational problems are one of the main objects of study in theoretical computer science. The field of computational complexity theory attempts to determine the amoun... | Computational problem | 0.846174 |
607 | In theoretical computer science, a computational problem is a problem that may be solved by an algorithm. For example, the problem of factoring "Given a positive integer n, find a nontrivial prime factor of n. "is a computational problem. A computational problem can be viewed as a set of instances or cases together wit... | Computational problem | 0.846174 |
608 | The first theoretical treatment of electrostatic screening, due to Peter Debye and Erich Hückel, dealt with a stationary point charge embedded in a fluid. Consider a fluid of electrons in a background of heavy, positively charged ions. For simplicity, we ignore the motion and spatial distribution of the ions, approxima... | Electric-field screening | 0.846145 |
609 | In reality, these long-range effects are suppressed by the flow of particles in response to electric fields. This flow reduces the effective interaction between particles to a short-range "screened" Coulomb interaction. This system corresponds to the simplest example of a renormalized interaction.In solid-state physics... | Electric-field screening | 0.846145 |
610 | In physics, screening is the damping of electric fields caused by the presence of mobile charge carriers. It is an important part of the behavior of charge-carrying fluids, such as ionized gases (classical plasmas), electrolytes, and charge carriers in electronic conductors (semiconductors, metals). In a fluid, with a ... | Electric-field screening | 0.846145 |
611 | Publicly available information from biomedical documents is readily accessible through the internet and is becoming a powerful resource for collecting known protein–protein interactions (PPIs), PPI prediction and protein docking. Text mining is much less costly and time-consuming compared to other high-throughput techn... | Protein interaction | 0.846125 |
612 | Text mining can be implemented in two stages: information retrieval, where texts containing names of either or both interacting proteins are retrieved and information extraction, where targeted information (interacting proteins, implicated residues, interaction types, etc.) is extracted. There are also studies using ph... | Protein interaction | 0.846125 |
613 | In physics, the electromagnetic dual concept is based on the idea that, in the static case, electromagnetism has two separate facets: electric fields and magnetic fields. Expressions in one of these will have a directly analogous, or dual, expression in the other. The reason for this can ultimately be traced to special... | Duality (electricity and magnetism) | 0.846023 |
614 | Some of the more contemporary periodical publications specializing in the field are MATCH Communications in Mathematical and in Computer Chemistry, first published in 1975, and the Journal of Mathematical Chemistry, first published in 1987. In 1986 a series of annual conferences MATH/CHEM/COMP taking place in Dubrovnik... | Mathematical chemistry | 0.846004 |
615 | Another important area is molecular knot theory and circuit topology that describe the topology of folded linear molecules such as proteins and Nucleic Acids. The history of the approach may be traced back to the 19th century. Georg Helm published a treatise titled "The Principles of Mathematical Chemistry: The Energet... | Mathematical chemistry | 0.846004 |
616 | Mathematical chemistry is the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. Mathematical chemistry has also sometimes been called computer chemistry, but should not be confused with computational chemistry... | Mathematical chemistry | 0.846004 |
617 | In molecular physics/nanotechnology, electrostatic deflection is the deformation of a beam-like structure/element bent by an electric field. It can be due to interaction between electrostatic fields and net charge or electric polarization effects. The beam-like structure/element is generally cantilevered (fix at one of... | Electrostatic deflection (molecular physics/nanotechnology) | 0.845941 |
618 | Classical electromagnetism or classical electrodynamics is a branch of theoretical physics that studies the interactions between electric charges and currents using an extension of the classical Newtonian model; It is, therefore, a classical field theory. The theory provides a description of electromagnetic phenomena w... | Classical electromagnetism | 0.845929 |
619 | A changing electromagnetic field propagates away from its origin in the form of a wave. These waves travel in vacuum at the speed of light and exist in a wide spectrum of wavelengths. Examples of the dynamic fields of electromagnetic radiation (in order of increasing frequency): radio waves, microwaves, light (infrared... | Classical electromagnetism | 0.845929 |
620 | Though streaming algorithms had already been studied by Munro and Paterson as early as 1978, as well as Philippe Flajolet and G. Nigel Martin in 1982/83, the field of streaming algorithms was first formalized and popularized in a 1996 paper by Noga Alon, Yossi Matias, and Mario Szegedy. For this paper, the authors late... | Streaming algorithms | 0.845917 |
621 | In computer science, streaming algorithms are algorithms for processing data streams in which the input is presented as a sequence of items and can be examined in only a few passes, typically just one. These algorithms are designed to operate with limited memory, generally logarithmic in the size of the stream and/or i... | Streaming algorithms | 0.845917 |
622 | Much of the streaming literature is concerned with computing statistics on frequency distributions that are too large to be stored. For this class of problems, there is a vector a = ( a 1 , … , a n ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {a} =(a_{1},\dots ,a_{n})} (initialized to the zero vector 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {0} } ) that ... | Streaming algorithms | 0.845917 |
623 | Solar physics is the branch of astrophysics that specializes in the study of the Sun. It deals with detailed measurements that are possible only for our closest star. It intersects with many disciplines of pure physics, astrophysics, and computer science, including fluid dynamics, plasma physics including magnetohydrod... | Solar physicist | 0.845885 |
624 | In astronomy, the renaissance period started with the work of Nicolaus Copernicus. He proposed that planets revolve around the Sun and not around the Earth, as it was believed at the time. This model is known as the heliocentric model. | Solar physicist | 0.845885 |
625 | Modern day solar physics is focused towards understanding the many phenomena observed with the help of modern telescopes and satellites. Of particular interest are the structure of the solar photosphere, the coronal heat problem and sunspots. | Solar physicist | 0.845885 |
626 | Scoring algorithm, also known as Fisher's scoring, is a form of Newton's method used in statistics to solve maximum likelihood equations numerically, named after Ronald Fisher. | Scoring algorithm | 0.845874 |
627 | Protein Science is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on the structure, function, and biochemical significance of proteins, their role in molecular and cell biology, genetics, and evolution, and their regulation and mechanisms of action. It is published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of The Protein Soci... | Protein Sci | 0.845707 |
628 | STEM subjects are taught in Pakistan as part of electives taken in the 9th and 10th grade, culminating in Matriculation exams. These electives are: pure sciences (Physics, Chemistry, Biology), mathematics (Physics, Chemistry, Maths) and computer science (Physics, Chemistry, Computer Science). STEM subjects are also off... | Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics | 0.845636 |
629 | People identifying within the group LGBTQ+ have faced discrimination in STEM fields throughout history. Few were openly queer in STEM; however, a couple of well-known people are Alan Turing, the father of computer science, and Sara Josephine Baker, American physician and public-health leader.Despite recent changes in a... | Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics | 0.845636 |
630 | In November 2012 the White House announcement before congressional vote on the STEM Jobs Act put President Obama in opposition to many of the Silicon Valley firms and executives who bankrolled his re-election campaign. The Department of Labor identified 14 sectors that are "projected to add substantial numbers of new j... | Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics | 0.845636 |
631 | See protein folding. A third approach that structural biologists take to understanding structure is bioinformatics to look for patterns among the diverse sequences that give rise to particular shapes. Researchers often can deduce aspects of the structure of integral membrane proteins based on the membrane topology pred... | Structural biologist | 0.845533 |
632 | With the development of these three techniques, the field of structural biology expanded and also became a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules (especially proteins, made up of amino acids, RNA or DNA, made up of nucleotides, and m... | Structural biologist | 0.845533 |
633 | Through the discovery of X-rays and its applications to protein crystals, structural biology was revolutionized, as now scientists could obtain the three-dimensional structures of biological molecules in atomic detail. Likewise, NMR spectroscopy allowed information about protein structure and dynamics to be obtained. F... | Structural biologist | 0.845533 |
634 | Structural biology is a field that is many centuries old which, as defined by the Journal of Structural Biology, deals with structural analysis of living material (formed, composed of, and/or maintained and refined by living cells) at every level of organization. Early structural biologists throughout the 19th and earl... | Structural biologist | 0.845533 |
635 | Sequencing is used in molecular biology to study genomes and the proteins they encode. Information obtained using sequencing allows researchers to identify changes in genes and noncoding DNA (including regulatory sequences), associations with diseases and phenotypes, and identify potential drug targets. | DNA sequence | 0.845532 |
636 | DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods has greatly accelerated biological and... | DNA sequence | 0.845532 |
637 | If P ≠ NP, then NP-hard problems could not be solved in polynomial time. Some NP-hard optimization problems can be polynomial-time approximated up to some constant approximation ratio (in particular, those in APX) or even up to any approximation ratio (those in PTAS or FPTAS). | NP-hardness | 0.845479 |
638 | All NP-complete problems are also NP-hard (see List of NP-complete problems). For example, the optimization problem of finding the least-cost cyclic route through all nodes of a weighted graph—commonly known as the travelling salesman problem—is NP-hard. The subset sum problem is another example: given a set of integer... | NP-hardness | 0.845479 |
639 | A decision problem H is NP-hard when for every problem L in NP, there is a polynomial-time many-one reduction from L to H.: 80 An equivalent definition is to require that every problem L in NP can be solved in polynomial time by an oracle machine with an oracle for H. Informally, an algorithm can be thought of that cal... | NP-hardness | 0.845479 |
640 | Within each interatomic surface, the electron density is a maximum at the corresponding internuclear saddle point, which also lies at the minimum of the ridge between corresponding pair of nuclei, the ridge being defined by the pair of gradient trajectories (bond path) originating at the saddle point and terminating at... | Atoms in molecules | 0.845433 |
641 | In addition to bonding, QTAIM allows the calculation of certain physical properties on a per-atom basis, by dividing space up into atomic volumes containing exactly one nucleus, which acts as a local attractor of the electron density. In QTAIM an atom is defined as a proper open system, i.e. a system that can share ene... | Atoms in molecules | 0.845433 |
642 | The development of QTAIM was driven by the assumption that, since the concepts of atoms and bonds have been and continue to be so ubiquitously useful in interpreting, classifying, predicting and communicating chemistry, they should have a well-defined physical basis. QTAIM recovers the central operational concepts of t... | Atoms in molecules | 0.845433 |
643 | In quantum chemistry, the quantum theory of atoms in molecules (QTAIM), sometimes referred to as atoms in molecules (AIM), is a model of molecular and condensed matter electronic systems (such as crystals) in which the principal objects of molecular structure - atoms and bonds - are natural expressions of a system's ob... | Atoms in molecules | 0.845433 |
644 | A tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. Whereas outside mathematics the use of the term "dimension" is as in: "A tesseract has four dimensions", mathematicians usually express this as: "The tesseract has dimension 4", or: "The dimension of the tesseract is 4" or: 4D. Although the notion of higher dimens... | Multidimensional geometry | 0.845365 |
645 | The invention of Cartesian coordinates in the 17th century by René Descartes revolutionized mathematics by providing the first systematic link between Euclidean geometry and algebra. Using the Cartesian coordinate system, geometric shapes (such as curves) can be described by Cartesian equations: algebraic equations inv... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
646 | In Cartesian geometry, equations are used to describe geometric figures. As the equations that are considered, such as implicit equations or parametric equations, have infinitely many solutions, the objective is now different: instead of giving the solutions explicitly or counting them, which is impossible, one uses eq... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
647 | An ordinary differential equation or ODE is an equation containing a function of one independent variable and its derivatives. The term "ordinary" is used in contrast with the term partial differential equation, which may be with respect to more than one independent variable. Linear differential equations, which have s... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
648 | In algebra, an example of an identity is the difference of two squares: x 2 − y 2 = ( x + y ) ( x − y ) {\displaystyle x^{2}-y^{2}=(x+y)(x-y)} which is true for all x and y. Trigonometry is an area where many identities exist; these are useful in manipulating or solving trigonometric equations. Two of many that involve... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
649 | An identity is an equation that is true for all possible values of the variable(s) it contains. Many identities are known in algebra and calculus. In the process of solving an equation, an identity is often used to simplify an equation, making it more easily solvable. | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
650 | Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves and quartic curves like lemniscates, and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy ... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
651 | Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying solutions of polynomial equations. Modern algebraic geometry is based on more abstract techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry. The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometr... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
652 | Algebra also studies Diophantine equations where the coefficients and solutions are integers. The techniques used are different and come from number theory. These equations are difficult in general; one often searches just to find the existence or absence of a solution, and, if they exist, to count the number of soluti... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
653 | Algebra studies two main families of equations: polynomial equations and, among them, the special case of linear equations. When there is only one variable, polynomial equations have the form P(x) = 0, where P is a polynomial, and linear equations have the form ax + b = 0, where a and b are parameters. To solve equatio... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
654 | In mathematics, the theory of linear systems is a fundamental part of linear algebra, a subject which is used in many parts of modern mathematics. Computational algorithms for finding the solutions are an important part of numerical linear algebra, and play a prominent role in physics, engineering, chemistry, computer ... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
655 | Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations. In more technical language, they define an algebraic curve, algebraic surface, or more general object, and ask about the lattice points on it. The word Diophantine refers to the Hellenist... | Mathematical equation | 0.845326 |
656 | In physics, the energy spectrum of a particle is the number of particles or intensity of a particle beam as a function of particle energy. Examples of techniques that produce an energy spectrum are alpha-particle spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy, and mass-analyzed ion-kinetic-energy spectrometry. | Spectrum (physical sciences) | 0.845244 |
657 | Wedderburn proved these results in 1907 in his doctoral thesis, On hypercomplex numbers, which appeared in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. His thesis classified finite-dimensional simple and also semisimple algebras over fields. Simple algebras are building blocks of semisimple algebras: any finite-... | Simple algebra | 0.84517 |
658 | Also, for any n ≥ 1 {\displaystyle n\geq 1} , the algebra of n × n {\displaystyle n\times n} matrices with entries in a division ring is simple. Joseph Wedderburn proved that if a ring R {\displaystyle R} is a finite-dimensional simple algebra over a field k {\displaystyle k} , it is isomorphic to a matrix algebra over... | Simple algebra | 0.84517 |
659 | It is then called a simple algebra over this field. Several references (e.g., Lang (2002) or Bourbaki (2012)) require in addition that a simple ring be left or right Artinian (or equivalently semi-simple). | Simple algebra | 0.84517 |
660 | The Weyl algebra also gives an example of a simple algebra that is not a matrix algebra over a division algebra over its center: the Weyl algebra is infinite-dimensional, so Wedderburn's theorem does not apply. Wedderburn's result was later generalized to semisimple rings in the Wedderburn-Artin theorem: this says that... | Simple algebra | 0.84517 |
661 | One must be careful of the terminology: not every simple ring is a semisimple ring, and not every simple algebra is a semisimple algebra! However, every finite-dimensional simple algebra is a semisimple algebra, and every simple ring that is left or right artinian is a semisimple ring. An example of a simple ring that ... | Simple algebra | 0.84517 |
662 | Every finite-dimensional central simple algebra over a finite field is isomorphic to a matrix ring over that field. The algebra of all linear transformations of an infinite-dimensional vector space over a field k {\displaystyle k} is a simple ring that is not a semisimple ring. It is also a simple algebra over k {\disp... | Simple algebra | 0.84517 |
663 | These results follow from the Frobenius theorem. Every finite-dimensional simple algebra over C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } is a central simple algebra, and is isomorphic to a matrix ring over C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } . | Simple algebra | 0.84517 |
664 | In abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, a simple ring is a non-zero ring that has no two-sided ideal besides the zero ideal and itself. In particular, a commutative ring is a simple ring if and only if it is a field. The center of a simple ring is necessarily a field. It follows that a simple ring is an associati... | Simple algebra | 0.84517 |
665 | Let R {\displaystyle \mathbb {R} } be the field of real numbers, C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } be the field of complex numbers, and H {\displaystyle \mathbb {H} } the quaternions. A central simple algebra (sometimes called a Brauer algebra) is a simple finite-dimensional algebra over a field F {\displaystyle F} whose ... | Simple algebra | 0.84517 |
666 | Using the bijection F: SX → SY constructed from a bijection f: X → Y, one defines: f is an isomorphism between (X,U) and (Y,V) if F(U) = V.This general notion of isomorphism generalizes many less general notions listed below. For algebraic structures: isomorphism is a bijective homomorphism. In particular, for vector s... | Equivalent definitions of mathematical structures | 0.845065 |
667 | However, not all fixed points of this action correspond to species of structures.Given two species, Bourbaki defines the notion "procedure of deduction" (of a structure of the second species from a structure of the first species). A pair of mutually inverse procedures of deduction leads to the notion "equivalent specie... | Equivalent definitions of mathematical structures | 0.845065 |
668 | (This notion, defined for all structures, may be thought of as a generalization of the signature defined only for algebraic structures.) Let Set* denote the groupoid of sets and bijections. That is, the category whose objects are (all) sets, and morphisms are (all) bijections.Proposition. | Equivalent definitions of mathematical structures | 0.845065 |
669 | In mathematics, equivalent definitions are used in two somewhat different ways. First, within a particular mathematical theory (for example, Euclidean geometry), a notion (for example, ellipse or minimal surface) may have more than one definition. These definitions are equivalent in the context of a given mathematical ... | Equivalent definitions of mathematical structures | 0.845065 |
670 | Thus, in practice a topology on a set is treated like an abstract data type that provides all needed notions (and constructors) but hides the distinction between "primary" and "secondary" notions. The same applies to other kinds of mathematical structures. "Interestingly, the formalization of structures in set theory i... | Equivalent definitions of mathematical structures | 0.845065 |
671 | These are second-order structures.More complicated non-algebraic structures combine an algebraic component and a non-algebraic component. For example, the structure of a topological group consists of a topology and the structure of a group. Thus it belongs to the product of P(P(X)) and another ("algebraic") set in the ... | Equivalent definitions of mathematical structures | 0.845065 |
672 | A triple (+, ·, ≤) consisting of two binary functions N × N → N and one binary relation on N belongs to P(N × N × N) × P(N × N × N) × P(N × N). Similarly, every algebraic structure on a set belongs to the corresponding set in the scale of sets on X. Non-algebraic structures on a set X often involve sets of subsets of X... | Equivalent definitions of mathematical structures | 0.845065 |
673 | Speed breeding is introduced by Watson et al. 2018. Classical (human performed) phenotyping during speed breeding is also possible, using a procedure developed by Richard et al. 2015. As of 2020 it is highly anticipated that SB and automated phenotyping will, combined, produce greatly improved outcomes – see § Phenotyp... | Crop breeding | 0.845056 |
674 | Thus axonemal microtubules, which have a long half-life, carry a "signature acetylation," which is absent from cytosolic microtubules that have a shorter half-life. In the field of epigenetics, histone acetylation (and deacetylation) have been shown to be important mechanisms in the regulation of gene transcription. Hi... | Protein acetylation | 0.845048 |
675 | A drug that depends on such metabolic transformations in order to act is termed a prodrug. Acetylation is an important modification of proteins in cell biology; and proteomics studies have identified thousands of acetylated mammalian proteins. Acetylation occurs as a co-translational and post-translational modification... | Protein acetylation | 0.845048 |
676 | In numerical analysis, the minimum degree algorithm is an algorithm used to permute the rows and columns of a symmetric sparse matrix before applying the Cholesky decomposition, to reduce the number of non-zeros in the Cholesky factor. This results in reduced storage requirements and means that the Cholesky factor can ... | Minimum degree algorithm | 0.845036 |
677 | In natural language processing, dependency-based parsing can be formulated as an ASP problem. The following code parses the Latin sentence "Puella pulchra in villa linguam latinam discit", "the pretty girl is learning Latin in the villa". The syntax tree is expressed by the arc predicates which represent the dependenci... | Answer-set programming | 0.845003 |
678 | By the implicit function theorem, then, x ∗ ( q ) {\displaystyle x^{*}(q)} may be viewed locally as a continuously differentiable function, and the local response of x ∗ ( q ) {\displaystyle x^{*}(q)} to small changes in q is given by D q x ∗ ( q ) = − − 1 D q f ( x ∗ ( q ) ; q ) . {\displaystyle D_{q}x^{*}(q)=-^{-1}D... | Comparative statics | 0.844914 |
679 | Suppose p ( x ; q ) {\displaystyle p(x;q)} is a smooth and strictly concave objective function where x is a vector of n endogenous variables and q is a vector of m exogenous parameters. Consider the unconstrained optimization problem x ∗ ( q ) = arg max p ( x ; q ) {\displaystyle x^{*}(q)=\arg \max p(x;q)} . Let f ( ... | Comparative statics | 0.844914 |
680 | One limitation of comparative statics using the implicit function theorem is that results are valid only in a (potentially very small) neighborhood of the optimum—that is, only for very small changes in the exogenous variables. Another limitation is the potentially overly restrictive nature of the assumptions conventio... | Comparative statics | 0.844914 |
681 | Comparative statics results are usually derived by using the implicit function theorem to calculate a linear approximation to the system of equations that defines the equilibrium, under the assumption that the equilibrium is stable. That is, if we consider a sufficiently small change in some exogenous parameter, we can... | Comparative statics | 0.844913 |
682 | A generalization of the above method allows the optimization problem to include a set of constraints. This leads to the general envelope theorem. Applications include determining changes in Marshallian demand in response to changes in price or wage. | Comparative statics | 0.844913 |
683 | Daniel Dennett has called the hard problem a "hunch", and maintains that conscious experience, as it is usually understood, is merely a complex cognitive illusion. Patricia Churchland, also an eliminative materialist, maintains that philosophers ought to be more patient: neuroscience is still in its early stages, so Ch... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
684 | Just as mass is energy, Strawson believes that consciousness "just is" matter. : 7 Max Tegmark, theoretical physicist and creator of the mathematical universe hypothesis, disagrees with these conclusions. By his account, the universe is not just describable by math but is math; comparing physics to economics or populat... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
685 | The conscious mind, Russell argued, is one such structure.Proponents of panpsychism who use this line of reasoning include Chalmers, Annaka Harris, and Galen Strawson. Chalmers has argued that the extrinsic properties of physics must have corresponding intrinsic properties; otherwise the universe would be "a giant caus... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
686 | This led Alfred North Whitehead to conclude that intrinsic properties are "intrinsically unknowable. "(3) Consciousness has many similarities to these intrinsic properties of physics. It, too, cannot be directly observed from an outside perspective. | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
687 | In other words, physics describes matter's extrinsic properties, but not the intrinsic properties that ground them. (2) Russell argued that physics is mathematical because "it is only mathematical properties we can discover." This is true almost by definition: if only extrinsic properties are outwardly observable, then... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
688 | The objects that ground physics, however, can be described only through more mathematics. In Russell's words, physics describes "certain equations giving abstract properties of their changes." When it comes to describing "what it is that changes, and what it changes from and to—as to this, physics is silent." | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
689 | (1) Like many sciences, physics describes the world through mathematics. Unlike other sciences, physics cannot describe what Schopenhauer called the "object that grounds" mathematics. Economics is grounded in resources being allocated, and population dynamics is grounded in individual people within that population. | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
690 | Physics is mathematical, not because we know so much about the physical world, but because we know so little: it is only its mathematical properties that we can discover. For the rest our knowledge is negative. Rather than solely trying to solve the problem of consciousness, Russell also attempted to solve the problem ... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
691 | According to Plato: This world is indeed a living being endowed with a soul and intelligence ... a single visible living entity containing all other living entities, which by their nature are all related. Stoicism developed a cosmology that held that the natural world is infused with the divine fiery essence pneuma, di... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
692 | This notion has taken on a wide variety of forms. Some historical and non-Western panpsychists ascribe attributes such as life or spirits to all entities (animism). Contemporary academic proponents, however, hold that sentience or subjective experience is ubiquitous, while distinguishing these qualities from more compl... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
693 | In general, it seems that data is most useful to us when it is abstracted from its original structure and repackaged in a way that is easier to understand, even if this comes at the cost of accuracy. Hoffman offers the "fitness beats truth theorem" as mathematical proof that perceptions of reality bear little resemblan... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
694 | Panpsychist interpretations of quantum mechanics have been put forward by such philosophers as Whitehead, Shan Gao, Michael Lockwood, and Hoffman, who is a cognitive scientist. Protopanpsychist interpretations have been put forward by Bohm and Pylkkänen.Quantum theories of consciousness have yet to gain mainstream atte... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
695 | Leaning toward the many-worlds interpretation due to its mathematical parsimony, he believes his variety of panpsychist property dualism may be the theory Penrose is seeking. Chalmers believes that information will play an integral role in any theory of consciousness because the mind and brain have corresponding inform... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
696 | The many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics does not take observation as central to the wave-function collapse, because it denies that the collapse happens. On the many-worlds interpretation, just as the cat is both dead and alive, the observer both sees a dead cat and sees a living cat. Even though observation... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
697 | Though not referring specifically to quantum mechanics, Chalmers has written that if a theory of everything is ever discovered, it will be a set of "psychophysical laws", rather than simply a set of physical laws. With Chalmers as their inspiration, Bohm and Pylkkänen set out to do just that in their panprotopsychism. ... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
698 | This has raised questions about, in John S. Bell's words, "where the observer begins and ends." The measurement problem has largely been characterised as the clash of classical physics and quantum mechanics. Bohm argued that it is rather a clash of classical physics, quantum mechanics, and phenomenology; all three leve... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
699 | According to the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, one of the oldest interpretations and the most widely taught, it is the act of observation that collapses the wave-function. Erwin Schrödinger famously articulated the Copenhagen interpretation's unusual implications in the thought experiment now known as... | Combination problem | 0.844881 |
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