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500 | Also, as for second cousins, parents not related to the common ancestor are indicated by numerals. Here, the prime equation is fY = ft = fP1,P2 = (1/4) . After working through the appropriate algebra, this becomes ft = (1/4) ] , which is the iteration version. | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
501 | After working through the appropriate algebra, this becomes ft = (1/4) ]] , which is the iteration version. A "final" version is ft = (1/64) . To visualize the pattern in full cousin equations, start the series with the full sib equation re-written in iteration form: ft = (1/4). | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
502 | There are two major approaches to defining and partitioning genotypic variance. One is based on the gene-model effects, while the other is based on the genotype substitution effects They are algebraically inter-convertible with each other. In this section, the basic random fertilization derivation is considered, with t... | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
503 | The previous sections treated dispersion as an "assistant" to selection, and it became apparent that the two work well together. In quantitative genetics, selection is usually examined in this "biometrical" fashion, but the changes in the means (as monitored by ΔG) reflect the changes in allele and genotype frequencies... | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
504 | Formal definitions of these effects recognize this phenotypic focus. Epistasis has been approached statistically as interaction (i.e., inconsistencies), but epigenetics suggests a new approach may be needed. If 0 a was known as "over-dominance".Mendel's pea attribute "length of stem" provides us with a good example. | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
505 | In diploid organisms, the average genotypic "value" (locus value) may be defined by the allele "effect" together with a dominance effect, and also by how genes interact with genes at other loci (epistasis). The founder of quantitative genetics - Sir Ronald Fisher - perceived much of this when he proposed the first math... | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
506 | The number of gametes involved in fertilization varies from sample to sample, and is given as 2Nk . The total (Σ) number of gametes sampled overall is 52 . Because each sample has its own size, weights are needed to obtain averages (and other statistics) when obtaining the overall results. These are ω k = 2 N k / ( ∑ k... | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
507 | : 1710–181 The narrow-sense heritability (h2) is usually used, thereby linking to the genic variance (σ2A) . However, if appropriate, use of the broad-sense heritability (H2) would connect to the genotypic variance (σ2G) ; and even possibly an allelic heritability might be contemplated, connecting to (σ2a ). To apply ... | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
508 | Further gathering of terms leads to 1 2 D + 1 2 F ′ + 1 2 H 3 + 1 4 H 2 {\textstyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}{\mathsf {D}}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}{\mathsf {F}}^{\prime }+{\tfrac {1}{2}}{\mathsf {H}}_{3}+{\tfrac {1}{4}}{\mathsf {H}}_{2}} , where 1 2 H 3 = ( q − p ) 2 1 2 H 1 = ( q − p ) 2 2 p q d 2 {\textstyle {\tfrac {1}{2}}{\mathsf {H... | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
509 | The covad and substitution deviation variances are simply artifacts of this shift. The allelic and dominance variances are genuine genetical partitions of the original gene-model, and are the only eu-genetical components. Even then, the algebraic formula for the allelic variance is effected by the presence of G: it is ... | Quantitative genetics | 0.847725 |
510 | Most of these calculi can be formalized as abstract relation algebras, such that reasoning can be carried out at a symbolic level. For computing solutions of a constraint network, the path-consistency algorithm is an important tool. | Spatial reasoning | 0.847585 |
511 | There are many concepts and theories in continuous mathematics which have discrete versions, such as discrete calculus, discrete Fourier transforms, discrete geometry, discrete logarithms, discrete differential geometry, discrete exterior calculus, discrete Morse theory, discrete optimization, discrete probability theo... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
512 | Automata theory and formal language theory are closely related to computability. Petri nets and process algebras are used to model computer systems, and methods from discrete mathematics are used in analyzing VLSI electronic circuits. Computational geometry applies algorithms to geometrical problems and representations... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
513 | Theoretical computer science includes areas of discrete mathematics relevant to computing. It draws heavily on graph theory and mathematical logic. Included within theoretical computer science is the study of algorithms and data structures. Computability studies what can be computed in principle, and has close ties to ... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
514 | The telecommunication industry has also motivated advances in discrete mathematics, particularly in graph theory and information theory. Formal verification of statements in logic has been necessary for software development of safety-critical systems, and advances in automated theorem proving have been driven by this n... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
515 | In 1970, Yuri Matiyasevich proved that this could not be done. The need to break German codes in World War II led to advances in cryptography and theoretical computer science, with the first programmable digital electronic computer being developed at England's Bletchley Park with the guidance of Alan Turing and his sem... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
516 | The history of discrete mathematics has involved a number of challenging problems which have focused attention within areas of the field. In graph theory, much research was motivated by attempts to prove the four color theorem, first stated in 1852, but not proved until 1976 (by Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken, using ... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
517 | Topological combinatorics concerns the use of techniques from topology and algebraic topology/combinatorial topology in combinatorics. Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties. Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic pro... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
518 | Combinatorics studies the way in which discrete structures can be combined or arranged. Enumerative combinatorics concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects - e.g. the twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions. Analytic combinatorics con... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
519 | Algebraic structures occur as both discrete examples and continuous examples. Discrete algebras include: boolean algebra used in logic gates and programming; relational algebra used in databases; discrete and finite versions of groups, rings and fields are important in algebraic coding theory; discrete semigroups and m... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
520 | Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets, which are collections of objects, such as {blue, white, red} or the (infinite) set of all prime numbers. Partially ordered sets and sets with other relations have applications in several areas. In discrete mathematics, countable sets (including finite sets) are... | Discrete Mathematics | 0.847502 |
521 | The Solar Physics Division of the American Astronomical Society boasts 555 members (as of May 2007), compared to several thousand in the parent organization.A major thrust of current (2009) effort in the field of solar physics is integrated understanding of the entire Solar System including the Sun and its effects thro... | Solar Physics | 0.847364 |
522 | Boolean algebra satisfies many of the same laws as ordinary algebra when one matches up ∨ with addition and ∧ with multiplication. In particular the following laws are common to both kinds of algebra: The following laws hold in Boolean algebra, but not in ordinary algebra: Taking x = 2 in the third law above shows that... | Boolean problem | 0.847361 |
523 | Principle: If {X, R} is a partially ordered set, then {X, R(inverse)} is also a partially ordered set. There is nothing magical about the choice of symbols for the values of Boolean algebra. We could rename 0 and 1 to say α and β, and as long as we did so consistently throughout it would still be Boolean algebra, albei... | Boolean problem | 0.847361 |
524 | In the early 20th century, several electrical engineers intuitively recognized that Boolean algebra was analogous to the behavior of certain types of electrical circuits. Claude Shannon formally proved such behavior was logically equivalent to Boolean algebra in his 1937 master's thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay an... | Boolean problem | 0.847361 |
525 | Thus 0 and 1 are dual, and ∧ and ∨ are dual. The Duality Principle, also called De Morgan duality, asserts that Boolean algebra is unchanged when all dual pairs are interchanged. One change we did not need to make as part of this interchange was to complement. | Boolean problem | 0.847361 |
526 | Then it would still be Boolean algebra, and moreover operating on the same values. However it would not be identical to our original Boolean algebra because now we find ∨ behaving the way ∧ used to do and vice versa. So there are still some cosmetic differences to show that we've been fiddling with the notation, despit... | Boolean problem | 0.847361 |
527 | In this context, "numeric" means that the computer treats sequences of bits as binary numbers (base two numbers) and executes arithmetic operations like add, subtract, multiply, or divide. "Logical" refers to the Boolean logical operations of disjunction, conjunction, and negation between two sequences of bits, in whic... | Boolean problem | 0.847361 |
528 | Of the twenty-four propositions, the first three are quoted without proof from Euclid's Elements of Conics (a lost work by Euclid on conic sections). Propositions 4 and 5 establish elementary properties of the parabola. Propositions 6–17 give the mechanical proof of the main theorem; propositions 18–24 present the geom... | The Quadrature of the Parabola | 0.84731 |
529 | When the center of gravity of the triangle is known, the equilibrium of the lever yields the area of the parabola in terms of the area of the triangle which has the same base and equal height. Archimedes here deviates from the procedure found in On the Equilibrium of Planes in that he has the centers of gravity at a le... | The Quadrature of the Parabola | 0.84731 |
530 | Conic sections such as the parabola were already well known in Archimedes' time thanks to Menaechmus a century earlier. However, before the advent of the differential and integral calculus, there were no easy means to find the area of a conic section. Archimedes provides the first attested solution to this problem by f... | The Quadrature of the Parabola | 0.84731 |
531 | Quadrature of the Parabola (Greek: Τετραγωνισμὸς παραβολῆς) is a treatise on geometry, written by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC and addressed to his Alexandrian acquaintance Dositheus. It contains 24 propositions regarding parabolas, culminating in two proofs showing that the area of a parabolic segment (the region ... | The Quadrature of the Parabola | 0.84731 |
532 | Explainable AI (XAI), or Interpretable AI, or Explainable Machine Learning (XML), is artificial intelligence (AI) in which humans can understand the decisions or predictions made by the AI. It contrasts with the "black box" concept in machine learning where even its designers cannot explain why an AI arrived at a speci... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
533 | Association rule learning is a rule-based machine learning method for discovering relationships between variables in large databases. It is intended to identify strong rules discovered in databases using some measure of "interestingness".Rule-based machine learning is a general term for any machine learning method that... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
534 | Their main success came in the mid-1980s with the reinvention of backpropagation. : 25 Machine learning (ML), reorganized and recognized as its own field, started to flourish in the 1990s. The field changed its goal from achieving artificial intelligence to tackling solvable problems of a practical nature. It shifted f... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
535 | Work on symbolic/knowledge-based learning did continue within AI, leading to inductive logic programming, but the more statistical line of research was now outside the field of AI proper, in pattern recognition and information retrieval. : 708–710, 755 Neural networks research had been abandoned by AI and computer scie... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
536 | : 488 However, an increasing emphasis on the logical, knowledge-based approach caused a rift between AI and machine learning. Probabilistic systems were plagued by theoretical and practical problems of data acquisition and representation. : 488 By 1980, expert systems had come to dominate AI, and statistics was out of ... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
537 | As a scientific endeavor, machine learning grew out of the quest for artificial intelligence (AI). In the early days of AI as an academic discipline, some researchers were interested in having machines learn from data. They attempted to approach the problem with various symbolic methods, as well as what were then terme... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
538 | Analytical and computational techniques derived from deep-rooted physics of disordered systems can be extended to large-scale problems, including machine learning, e.g., to analyze the weight space of deep neural networks. Statistical physics is thus finding applications in the area of medical diagnostics. | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
539 | AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) European Conference on Machine Learning and Principles and Practice of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (ECML PKDD) International Conference on Computational Intelligence Methods for Bioinformatics and Biostatistics (CIBB) Intern... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
540 | Software suites containing a variety of machine learning algorithms include the following: | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
541 | Robot learning is inspired by a multitude of machine learning methods, starting from supervised learning, reinforcement learning, and finally meta-learning (e.g. MAML). | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
542 | Unsupervised learning algorithms take a set of data that contains only inputs, and find structure in the data, like grouping or clustering of data points. The algorithms, therefore, learn from test data that has not been labeled, classified or categorized. Instead of responding to feedback, unsupervised learning algori... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
543 | Gordon Plotkin and Ehud Shapiro laid the initial theoretical foundation for inductive machine learning in a logical setting. Shapiro built their first implementation (Model Inference System) in 1981: a Prolog program that inductively inferred logic programs from positive and negative examples. The term inductive here r... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
544 | Given an encoding of the known background knowledge and a set of examples represented as a logical database of facts, an ILP system will derive a hypothesized logic program that entails all positive and no negative examples. Inductive programming is a related field that considers any kind of programming language for re... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
545 | In contrast with sequence mining, association rule learning typically does not consider the order of items either within a transaction or across transactions. Learning classifier systems (LCS) are a family of rule-based machine learning algorithms that combine a discovery component, typically a genetic algorithm, with ... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
546 | For example, the rule { o n i o n s , p o t a t o e s } ⇒ { b u r g e r } {\displaystyle \{\mathrm {onions,potatoes} \}\Rightarrow \{\mathrm {burger} \}} found in the sales data of a supermarket would indicate that if a customer buys onions and potatoes together, they are likely to also buy hamburger meat. Such informa... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
547 | Rule-based machine learning approaches include learning classifier systems, association rule learning, and artificial immune systems. Based on the concept of strong rules, Rakesh Agrawal, Tomasz Imieliński and Arun Swami introduced association rules for discovering regularities between products in large-scale transacti... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
548 | A genetic algorithm (GA) is a search algorithm and heuristic technique that mimics the process of natural selection, using methods such as mutation and crossover to generate new genotypes in the hope of finding good solutions to a given problem. In machine learning, genetic algorithms were used in the 1980s and 1990s. ... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
549 | Machine learning (ML) is an umbrella term for solving problems for which development of algorithms by human programmers would be cost-prohibitive, and instead the problems are solved by helping machines "discover" their "own" algorithms, without needing to be explicitly told what to do by any human-developed algorithms... | Learning algorithms | 0.847127 |
550 | The rules of quantum tic-tac-toe attempt to capture three phenomena of quantum systems: superposition the ability of quantum objects to be in two places at once. entanglement the phenomenon where distant parts of a quantum system display correlations that cannot be explained by either timelike causality or common cause... | Quantum tic-tac-toe | 0.847064 |
551 | The researchers who invented quantum tic-tac-toe were studying abstract quantum systems, formal systems whose axiomatic foundation included only a few of the axioms of quantum mechanics. Quantum tic-tac-toe became the most thoroughly studied abstract quantum system and offered insights that spawned new research. It als... | Quantum tic-tac-toe | 0.847064 |
552 | How the universe can be like this is rather counterintuitive. There is a disconnect between the mathematics and our mental images of reality, a disconnect that is absent in classical physics. This is why quantum mechanics supports multiple "interpretations". | Quantum tic-tac-toe | 0.847064 |
553 | The motivation to invent quantum tic-tac-toe was to explore what it means to be in two places at once. In classical physics, a single object cannot be in two places at once. In quantum physics, however, the mathematics used to describe quantum systems seems to imply that before being subjected to quantum measurement (o... | Quantum tic-tac-toe | 0.847064 |
554 | Quantum tic-tac-toe is a "quantum generalization" of tic-tac-toe in which the players' moves are "superpositions" of plays in the classical game. The game was invented by Allan Goff of Novatia Labs, who describes it as "a way of introducing quantum physics without mathematics", and offering "a conceptual foundation for... | Quantum tic-tac-toe | 0.847064 |
555 | Roland E. Larson & Robert P. Hostetler (1989) Precalculus, second edition, D.C. Heath and Company ISBN 0-669-16277-9 Margaret L. Lial & Charles D. Miller (1988) Precalculus, Scott Foresman ISBN 0-673-15872-1 Jerome E. Kaufmann (1988) Precalculus, PWS-Kent Publishing Company (Wadsworth) Karl J. Smith (1990) Precalculus ... | Precalculus | 0.846997 |
556 | Another difference in the modern text is avoidance of complex numbers, except as they may arise as roots of a quadratic equation with a negative discriminant, or in Euler's formula as application of trigonometry. Euler used not only complex numbers but also infinite series in his precalculus. Today's course may cover a... | Precalculus | 0.846997 |
557 | This part of precalculus prepares the student for integration of the monomial x p {\displaystyle x^{p}} in the instance of p = − 1 {\displaystyle p=-1} . Today's precalculus text computes e {\displaystyle e} as the limit e = lim n → ∞ ( 1 + 1 n ) n {\displaystyle e=\lim _{n\rightarrow \infty }\left(1+{\frac {1}{n}}\rig... | Precalculus | 0.846997 |
558 | The general logarithm, to an arbitrary positive base, Euler presents as the inverse of an exponential function. Then the natural logarithm is obtained by taking as base "the number for which the hyperbolic logarithm is one", sometimes called Euler's number, and written e {\displaystyle e} . This appropriation of the si... | Precalculus | 0.846997 |
559 | For students to succeed at finding the derivatives and antiderivatives with calculus, they will need facility with algebraic expressions, particularly in modification and transformation of such expressions. Leonhard Euler wrote the first precalculus book in 1748 called Introductio in analysin infinitorum (Latin: Introd... | Precalculus | 0.846997 |
560 | Algebraic skills are exercised with trigonometric functions and trigonometric identities. The binomial theorem, polar coordinates, parametric equations, and the limits of sequences and series are other common topics of precalculus. Sometimes the mathematical induction method of proof for propositions dependent upon a n... | Precalculus | 0.846997 |
561 | Precalculus prepares students for calculus somewhat differently from the way that pre-algebra prepares students for algebra. While pre-algebra often has extensive coverage of basic algebraic concepts, precalculus courses might see only small amounts of calculus concepts, if at all, and often involves covering algebraic... | Precalculus | 0.846997 |
562 | Jay Abramson and others (2014) Precalculus from OpenStax David Lippman & Melonie Rasmussen (2017) Precalculus: an investigation of functions Carl Stitz & Jeff Zeager (2013) Precalculus (pdf) | Precalculus | 0.846997 |
563 | In mathematics education, precalculus is a course, or a set of courses, that includes algebra and trigonometry at a level which is designed to prepare students for the study of calculus, thus the name precalculus. Schools often distinguish between algebra and trigonometry as two separate parts of the coursework. | Precalculus | 0.846997 |
564 | Thus "x − y" is an example of a partially computable function. Proper subtraction x┴y (as defined above) The identity function: for each i, a function UZn = ΨZn(x1, ..., xn) exists that plucks xi out of the set of arguments (x1, ..., xn) MultiplicationBoolos–Burgess–Jeffrey (2002) give the following as prose descriptio... | Algorithm characterization | 0.846977 |
565 | 100, The Undecidable).It would appear from this, and the following, that far as Gödel was concerned, the Turing machine was sufficient and the lambda calculus was "much less suitable." He goes on to make the point that, with regards to limitations on human reason, the jury is still out: ("Note that the question of whet... | Algorithm characterization | 0.846977 |
566 | J. Math., vol. 58 (1936) ).Church's definitions encompass so-called "recursion" and the "lambda calculus" (i.e. the λ-definable functions). | Algorithm characterization | 0.846977 |
567 | due to "A. M. Turing's work a precise and unquestionably adequate definition of the general notion of formal system can now be given a completely general version of Theorems VI and XI is now possible." (p. 616). | Algorithm characterization | 0.846977 |
568 | In calculus, constants are treated in several different ways depending on the operation. For example, the derivative (rate of change) of a constant function is zero. This is because constants, by definition, do not change. Their derivative is hence zero. | Constant (mathematics) | 0.846968 |
569 | The context-dependent nature of the concept of "constant" can be seen in this example from elementary calculus: d d x 2 x = lim h → 0 2 x + h − 2 x h = lim h → 0 2 x 2 h − 1 h = 2 x lim h → 0 2 h − 1 h since x is constant (i.e. does not depend on h ) = 2 x ⋅ c o n s t a n t , where c o n s t a n t means not depending o... | Constant (mathematics) | 0.846968 |
570 | Some values occur frequently in mathematics and are conventionally denoted by a specific symbol. These standard symbols and their values are called mathematical constants. Examples include: 0 (zero). 1 (one), the natural number after zero. π (pi), the constant representing the ratio of a circle's circumference to its d... | Constant (mathematics) | 0.846968 |
571 | In fact, it turns out that ker ϕ {\displaystyle \ker \phi } is the smallest normal subgroup of ⟨ r , f ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle r,f\rangle } containing these three elements; in other words, all relations are consequences of these three. The quotient of the free group by this normal subgroup is denoted ⟨ r , f ∣ r 4 =... | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
572 | Similar examples can be formed from any other topological field, such as the field of complex numbers or the field of p-adic numbers. These examples are locally compact, so they have Haar measures and can be studied via harmonic analysis. Other locally compact topological groups include the group of points of an algebr... | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
573 | Some topological spaces may be endowed with a group law. In order for the group law and the topology to interweave well, the group operations must be continuous functions; informally, g ⋅ h {\displaystyle g\cdot h} and g − 1 {\displaystyle g^{-1}} must not vary wildly if g {\displaystyle g} and h {\displaystyle h} vary... | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
574 | Adjoining inverses of all elements of the monoid ( Z ∖ { 0 } , ⋅ ) {\displaystyle (\mathbb {Z} \smallsetminus \{0\},\cdot )} produces a group ( Q ∖ { 0 } , ⋅ ) {\displaystyle (\mathbb {Q} \smallsetminus \{0\},\cdot )} , and likewise adjoining inverses to any (abelian) monoid M produces a group known as the Grothendieck... | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
575 | More general structures may be defined by relaxing some of the axioms defining a group. The table gives a list of several structures generalizing groups. For example, if the requirement that every element has an inverse is eliminated, the resulting algebraic structure is called a monoid. The natural numbers N {\display... | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
576 | Many number systems, such as the integers and the rationals, enjoy a naturally given group structure. In some cases, such as with the rationals, both addition and multiplication operations give rise to group structures. Such number systems are predecessors to more general algebraic structures known as rings and fields.... | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
577 | After contributions from other fields such as number theory and geometry, the group notion was generalized and firmly established around 1870. Modern group theory—an active mathematical discipline—studies groups in their own right. To explore groups, mathematicians have devised various notions to break groups into smal... | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
578 | Point groups describe symmetry in molecular chemistry. The concept of a group arose in the study of polynomial equations, starting with Évariste Galois in the 1830s, who introduced the term group (French: groupe) for the symmetry group of the roots of an equation, now called a Galois group. | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
579 | Because the concept of groups is ubiquitous in numerous areas both within and outside mathematics, some authors consider it as a central organizing principle of contemporary mathematics.In geometry, groups arise naturally in the study of symmetries and geometric transformations: The symmetries of an object form a group... | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
580 | When a group G {\displaystyle G} has a normal subgroup N {\displaystyle N} other than { 1 } {\displaystyle \{1\}} and G {\displaystyle G} itself, questions about G {\displaystyle G} can sometimes be reduced to questions about N {\displaystyle N} and G / N {\displaystyle G/N} . A nontrivial group is called simple if it ... | Elementary group theory | 0.846963 |
581 | The institute awards numerous prizes to acknowledge contributions to physics research, education and application. | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
582 | In 1960, the Physical Society and the Institute of Physics merged, creating a single organization with the name The Institute of Physics and the Physical Society, with John Cockcroft elected at its first president. The new society combined the learned society tradition of the Physical Society with the professional body... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
583 | As with the Physical Society, dissemination of knowledge was fundamental to the institute, which began publication of the Journal of Scientific Instruments in 1922. The annual Reports on Progress in Physics began in 1934 and is still published today. In 1952, the institute began the "Graduateship" course and examinatio... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
584 | In the early part of the 20th century, the profession of "physicist" emerged, partly as a result of the increased demand for scientists during the First World War. In 1917, following discussions between William Eccles and William Duddell, the Council of the Physical Society, along with the Faraday Society, the Optical ... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
585 | The Institute of Physics was formed in 1960 from the merger of the Physical Society, founded as the Physical Society of London in 1874, and the Institute of Physics, founded in 1918.The Physical Society of London had been officially formed on 14 February 1874 by Frederick Guthrie, following the canvassing of opinion of... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
586 | The Institute of Physics (IOP) is a UK-based learned society and professional body that works to advance physics education, research and application.It was founded in 1874 and has a worldwide membership of over 20,000. The IOP is the Physical Society for the UK and Ireland and supports physics in education, research an... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
587 | In 2015, the membership of the Institute of Physics was 86% male at MInstP and 91% male at FInstP. 85% of Honorary Fellows were male.The institute grants academic dress to the various grades of membership. Those who have passed the institute's graduateeship examination (offered 1952–1984) are entitled to a violet damas... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
588 | The IOP has 23,000 members split across four grades of membership: Associate Member (AMInstP), Member (entitled to use the postnominals MInstP), Fellow (entitled to use the postnominals FInstP) and Honorary Fellow (entitled to use the postnominals Hon.FInstP). Undergraduates, apprentices and trainees can become Associa... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
589 | Sponsorship is provided by EDF Energy and support from the British Science Association. IOP runs the Stimulating Physics Network, aimed at increasing the uptake of physics at A-level, and administers teacher-training scholarships funded by the Department for Education.In March 2019, the Institute of Physics launched th... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
590 | The IOP provides an important educational service for secondary schools in the UK. This is the Lab in a Lorry, a mobile laboratory in a large articulated truck. This has three small laboratories where schoolchildren can try out various hands-on experiments, using physics equipment not usually available in the average s... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
591 | The IOP accredits undergraduate degrees (BSc/BA and MSci/MPhys) in physics in British and Irish universities. At post-16 level, the IOP developed the 'Advancing Physics' A-level course, in conjunction with the OCR examining board, which is accredited by the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. Advancing Physics was... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
592 | Since its formation, the institute has had its headquarters in London. The early meetings of the Physical Society of London were hosted in South Kensington, until a permanent base was found in Burlington House in 1894. In 1927, the Institute of Physics acquired, rent-free, 1 Lowther Gardens; it was joined there by the ... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
593 | IOP Publishing is a wholly owned subsidiary of the IOP that publishes 85 academic titles. Any profits generated by the publishing company are used to fund the charitable activities of the IOP. It won the Queen's Award for Export Achievement in 1990, 1995 and 2000 and publishes a large number of journals, websites and m... | Physics Web | 0.846707 |
594 | It is more common to use the convention that a clockwise bending moment to the left of the point under consideration is taken as positive. This then corresponds to the second derivative of a function which, when positive, indicates a curvature that is 'lower at the centre' i.e. sagging. When defining moments and curvat... | Bending Moment | 0.846557 |
595 | It is therefore clear that a point of zero bending moment within a beam is a point of contraflexure—that is, the point of transition from hogging to sagging or vice versa. Moments and torques are measured as a force multiplied by a distance so they have as unit newton-metres (N·m), or pound-foot (lb·ft). The concept of... | Bending Moment | 0.846557 |
596 | In spectroscopy and quantum chemistry, the multiplicity of an energy level is defined as 2S+1, where S is the total spin angular momentum. States with multiplicity 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are respectively called singlets, doublets, triplets, quartets and quintets.In the ground state of an atom or molecule, the unpaired electrons... | Multiplicity (chemistry) | 0.846538 |
597 | In organic chemistry, carbenes are molecules which have carbon atoms with only six electrons in their valence shells and therefore disobey the octet rule. Carbenes generally split into singlet carbenes and triplet carbenes, named for their spin multiplicities. Both have two non-bonding electrons; in singlet carbenes th... | Multiplicity (chemistry) | 0.846538 |
598 | Light detectors, such as photographic plates or CCDs, measure only the intensity of the light that hits them. This measurement is incomplete (even when neglecting other degrees of freedom such as polarization and angle of incidence) because a light wave has not only an amplitude (related to the intensity), but also a p... | Phase problem | 0.846504 |
599 | In physics, the phase problem is the problem of loss of information concerning the phase that can occur when making a physical measurement. The name comes from the field of X-ray crystallography, where the phase problem has to be solved for the determination of a structure from diffraction data. The phase problem is al... | Phase problem | 0.846504 |
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